martes, 16 de abril de 2019

Childhood Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment (PDQ®) 4/4 —Health Professional Version - National Cancer Institute

Childhood Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment (PDQ®)—Health Professional Version - National Cancer Institute

National Cancer Institute

Childhood Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment (PDQ®)–Health Professional Version

Treatment of Primary Refractory or Recurrent Hodgkin Lymphoma in Children and Adolescents

The excellent response to frontline therapy among children and adolescents with Hodgkin lymphoma limits opportunities to evaluate second-line (salvage) therapy. Because of the small number of patients that fail primary therapy, no uniform second-line treatment strategy exists for this patient population.
Adverse prognostic factors after relapse include the following:[1][Level of evidence: 3iiA]
  • The presence of B symptoms (fever, weight loss, and night sweats) and extranodal disease.[2]
  • Early relapse (occurring 3–12 months from the end of therapy).[3,4]
  • Inadequate response to initial second-line therapy.[4]
Children with localized favorable (relapse ≥12 months after completing therapy) disease recurrences whose original therapy involved reduced cycles of risk-adapted therapy or with chemotherapy alone and/or low-dose involved-field radiation therapy (LD-IRFT) consolidation have a high likelihood of achieving long-term survival after treatment with more intensive conventional chemotherapy.[5,6]
Treatment options for children and adolescents with refractory or recurrent Hodgkin lymphoma include the following:
  1. Chemotherapy and targeted therapy.
  2. Checkpoint inhibitor therapy.
  3. Chemotherapy followed by autologous hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT).
  4. Chemotherapy followed by allogeneic HCT.
  5. Involved-site radiation therapy (ISRT).

Chemotherapy and Targeted Therapy

Chemotherapy is the recommended second-line therapy, with the choice of specific agents, dose-intensity, and number of cycles determined by the initial therapy, disease characteristics at progression/relapse, and response to second-line therapy.
Agents used alone or in combination regimens in the treatment of refractory or recurrent pediatric Hodgkin lymphoma include the following:
  • ICE (ifosfamide, carboplatin, and etoposide).[7]
  • Ifosfamide and vinorelbine with or without bortezomib.[8][Level of evidence: 2Div]; [9][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv]
  • Vinorelbine and gemcitabine.[10]
  • IEP/ABVD/COPP (ifosfamide, etoposide, prednisone/doxorubicin, bleomycin, vinblastine, dacarbazine/cyclophosphamide, vincristine, procarbazine, prednisone).[3]
  • EPIC (etoposide, prednisolone, ifosfamide, and cisplatin).[11]
  • APE (cytosine arabinoside, cisplatin, and etoposide).[12]
  • MIED (high-dose methotrexate, ifosfamide, etoposide, and dexamethasone).[13]
  • Rituximab (for patients with CD20-positive disease) alone or in combination with second-line chemotherapy.[14]
  • Brentuximab vedotin. Brentuximab vedotin has been evaluated in adults with Hodgkin lymphoma. (Refer to the Recurrent Adult Classic HL Treatment section in the PDQ summary on Adult Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment for more information.) The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) indications for brentuximab vedotin in adult patients are as follows: (1) classical Hodgkin lymphoma after failure of autologous HCT or after failure of at least two previous multiagent chemotherapy regimens in patients who are not autologous HCT candidates, and (2) classical Hodgkin lymphoma at high risk of relapse or progression, as postautologous HCT consolidation therapy.
    1. A phase I study in adults with CD30-positive lymphomas identified a recommended phase II dose of 1.8 mg/kg on an every 3-week schedule and showed an objective response rate of 50% (6 of 12 patients) at the recommended phase II dose.[15][Level of evidence: 2Div]
    2. A phase II trial in adults with Hodgkin lymphoma (N = 102) who relapsed after autologous HCT showed the following:[16-19]
      • A complete remission rate of 34% and a partial remission rate of 40% was observed.[16-18]
      • Patients who achieved a complete remission (n = 34) had a 3-year progression-free survival (PFS) rate of 58% and a 3-year overall survival (OS) rate of 73%, with only 6 of 34 patients proceeding to allogeneic HCT while in remission.
      • Further follow-up demonstrated a 5-year OS rate of 41% and a PFS rate of 22%. However, patients who achieved a complete remission (38%) had a 5-year OS rate of 64% and a PFS rate of 52%.[19][Level of evidence: 2A]
    3. The number of pediatric patients treated with brentuximab vedotin is not sufficient to determine whether they respond differently than do adult patients. Clearance and volume of brentuximab vedotin significantly correlates with weight (P < .001), and its area under the curve and C max are lower in children than those reported in adult studies with weekly dosing.[20]
    4. The Children’s Oncology Group phase I/II study AHOD1221 (NCT01780662)investigated treatment with brentuximab vedotin and gemcitabine in 46 children and young adults with primary refractory Hodgkin Lymphoma or early relapse.[21]
      • The recommended phase II dose of brentuximab vedotin was 1.8 mg/kg.
      • Twenty-four of 42 patients (57%; 95% CI, 41%–72%) treated at this dose level experienced a complete response within the first four cycles. Four of 13 patients (31%) with partial response or stable disease had all target lesions with Deauville scores of 3 or less after cycle four. By modern response criteria, these are also complete responses, increasing the complete response rate to 28 of 42 patients (67%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 51%–80%).
      • Compared with alternate second-line regimens, brentuximab vedotin with gemcitabine offers the advantage of avoiding agents associated with late treatment-related sequelae, such as anthracyclines, alkylators, or epipodophyllotoxins.
    There are ongoing trials to determine the toxicity and efficacy of combining brentuximab vedotin with chemotherapy.

Checkpoint Inhibitor Therapy

Treatments that block the interaction between programmed death-1 (PD-1) and its ligands have shown high levels of activity in adults with Hodgkin lymphoma. The anti–PD-1 antibody nivolumab induced objective responses in 20 of 23 adult patients (87%) with relapsed Hodgkin lymphoma.[22] Another anti–PD-1 antibody, pembrolizumab, produced an objective response rate of 65% in 31 heavily pretreated adult patients with Hodgkin lymphoma who relapsed after receiving brentuximab vedotin.[23] (Refer to the Recurrent Adult Classic HL Treatment section in the PDQ summary on Adult Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment for more information.)
Evidence (pembrolizumab):
  1. Studies that used pembrolizumab to treat patients with relapsed Hodgkin lymphoma have reported the following:[23]; [24][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv]
    • An overall response rate of 64% to 74%, with a complete response rate of 22.4% (95% CI, 6.9%–28.6%).
    • Pembrolizumab is well tolerated by patients and can be used to achieve a clinical complete remission before autologous or allogeneic HCT.
    • Pembrolizumab is FDA approved for use in cases of refractory disease or relapse after three or more lines of therapy.
Nivolumab is FDA approved in adult patients with classical Hodgkin lymphoma who have relapsed or progressed after autologous HCT and brentuximab vedotin or three or more lines of systemic therapy that included autologous HCT.[22,25]
There are ongoing trials to determine the toxicity and efficacy of combining brentuximab vedotin and nivolumab with chemotherapy in pediatric patients with Hodgkin lymphoma.

Chemotherapy Followed by Autologous Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation (HCT)

Myeloablative chemotherapy with autologous HCT is the recommended approach for patients who develop refractory disease during therapy or relapsed disease within 1 year after completing therapy.[7,26-33]; [34][Level of evidence: 3iiA]; [35][Level of evidence: 3iiiA] In addition, this approach is also recommended for those who recur with extensive disease after the first year of completing therapy or for those who recur after initial therapy that included intensive (alkylating agents and anthracyclines) multiagent chemotherapy and radiation therapy.
  • Autologous HCT has been preferred for patients with relapsed Hodgkin lymphoma because of the historically high transplant-related mortality (TRM) associated with allogeneic transplantation.[36] After autologous HCT, the projected survival rate is 45% to 70% and PFS is 30% to 89%.[18,34,37,38]; [39][Level of evidence: 3iiiA]
  • Brentuximab vedotin as maintenance therapy given for 1 year after autologous HCT in adult patients with high risk of relapse or progression was demonstrated to improve PFS in a randomized, placebo-controlled, phase III trial.[40]
  • A multicenter, open-label, dose-escalation, phase I/II study evaluated the safety, maximum tolerated dose, and pharmacokinetics of brentuximab vedotin and identified a recommended phase II dose in 36 pediatric patients with relapsed or refractory classical Hodgkin lymphoma (n = 19) and anaplastic large cell lymphoma (n = 17). Toxicity was manageable (33% of patients had transient, limited-severity peripheral neuropathy), the maximum tolerated dose was not reached, and pediatric pharmacokinetics were similar to that of adults. The recommended phase II dose of brentuximab vedotin was 1.8 mg/m2 and it was administered for up to 16 cycles (median, 10 cycles) on the phase II arm. Among Hodgkin lymphoma participants on the phase II arm, 47% of patients achieved an overall response (33% complete response, 13% partial response), which provided a bridge to HCT for some patients.[41][Level of evidence: 3iii]
  • The most commonly utilized preparative regimen for peripheral blood stem cell transplant is the BEAM regimen (carmustine [BCNU], etoposide, cytarabine, melphalan) or CBV regimen (cyclophosphamide, carmustine, etoposide).[32,37-39]; [34][Level of evidence: 3iiA]; [35][Level of evidence:3iiiA] Carmustine may produce significant pulmonary toxicity.[39]
  • Other noncarmustine-containing preparative regimens have been utilized, including high-dose busulfan, etoposide, and cyclophosphamide [42] and lomustine, cytarabine, cyclophosphamide, and etoposide (LACE).[43][Level of evidence: 3iii]
Adverse prognostic features for outcome after autologous HCT include extranodal disease at relapse, bulky mediastinal mass at time of transplant, advanced stage at relapse, primary refractory disease, poor response to chemotherapy, and a positive positron emission tomography scan before autologous HCT.[1,37-39,44,45]
(Refer to the Autologous HCT section in the PDQ summary on Childhood Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation for more information about transplantation.)

Chemotherapy Followed by Allogeneic HCT

For patients who fail after autologous HCT or for patients with chemoresistant disease, allogeneic HCT has been used with encouraging results.[11,36,46-48] Investigations of reduced-intensity allogeneic transplantation that typically use fludarabine or low-dose total body irradiation to provide a nontoxic immunosuppression have demonstrated acceptable rates of TRM.[49-53]
(Refer to the Allogeneic HCT section in the PDQ summary on Childhood Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation for more information about transplantation.)

Involved-site Radiation Therapy (ISRT)

ISRT to sites of recurrent disease may enhance local control if these sites have not been previously irradiated. ISRT is generally administered after high-dose chemotherapy and stem cell rescue.[54] For patients who are not responsive to salvage therapy, ISRT may be an appropriate consideration before HCT.[55]

Response Rates for Primary Refractory Hodgkin Lymphoma

Salvage rates for patients with primary refractory Hodgkin lymphoma are poor even with autologous HCT and radiation. However, intensification of therapy followed by HCT consolidation has been reported to achieve long-term survival in some studies.
Evidence (response to treatment of primary refractory Hodgkin lymphoma):
  1. In one large series, 5-year OS after primary refractory Hodgkin lymphoma was attained with aggressive second-line therapy (high-dose chemoradiation therapy) and autologous HCT in 49% of patients.[56]
  2. In a Gesellschaft für Pädiatrische Onkologie und Hämatologie (GPOH) study, patients with primary refractory Hodgkin lymphoma (progressive disease on therapy or relapse within 3 months from the end of therapy) had 10-year event-free survival (EFS) and OS rates of 41% and 51%, respectively.[3]
  3. A study of 53 adolescent patients of the same types as those who participated in the GPOH study had similar results for EFS and OS.[57] Chemosensitivity to standard-dose second-line chemotherapy predicted a better survival (66% OS), and tumors that remained refractory to chemotherapy did poorly (17% OS).[58]
  4. Another group has reported the PFS post-HCT for chemosensitive patients as 80%, compared with 0% for those with chemoresistant disease.[34]

Second Relapse After Initial Treatment With Autologous HCT

In a phase II study, patients (median age, 26.5 years) who had relapsed or refractory disease after autologous HCT received brentuximab vedotin, with an objective response rate of 73% and a complete remission rate of 34%. Patients who achieved a complete remission (n = 34) had a 3-year PFS rate of 58% and a 3-year OS rate of 73%, with only 6 of 34 patients proceeding to allogeneic SCT while in remission.[18][Level of evidence: 2A]

Treatment Options Under Clinical Evaluation

Information about National Cancer Institute (NCI)–supported clinical trials can be found on the NCI website. For information about clinical trials sponsored by other organizations, refer to the ClinicalTrials.gov website.
The following is an example of a national and/or institutional clinical trial that is currently being conducted:
  1. Anti–PD-1 antibodies being studied in children with Hodgkin lymphoma include nivolumab (ADVL1412 [NCT02304458]) and pembrolizumab (NCT02332668). The anti–PD-L1 antibody atezolizumab is also being studied in children with Hodgkin lymphoma (NCT02541604). Nivolumab in combination with brentuximab vedotin is being studied in an international phase II trial in children with Hodgkin lymphoma (CheckMate 755 [NCT02927769]).

Current Clinical Trials

Use our advanced clinical trial search to find NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now enrolling patients. The search can be narrowed by location of the trial, type of treatment, name of the drug, and other criteria. General information about clinical trials is also available.
References
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  7. Cairo MS, Shen V, Krailo MD, et al.: Prospective randomized trial between two doses of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor after ifosfamide, carboplatin, and etoposide in children with recurrent or refractory solid tumors: a children's cancer group report. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 23 (1): 30-8, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
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  14. Schulz H, Rehwald U, Morschhauser F, et al.: Rituximab in relapsed lymphocyte-predominant Hodgkin lymphoma: long-term results of a phase 2 trial by the German Hodgkin Lymphoma Study Group (GHSG). Blood 111 (1): 109-11, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
  15. Younes A, Bartlett NL, Leonard JP, et al.: Brentuximab vedotin (SGN-35) for relapsed CD30-positive lymphomas. N Engl J Med 363 (19): 1812-21, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
  16. Sea: ADCETRIS (Brentuximab Vedotin): Prescribing Information. Bothell, Wa: Seattle Genetics, 2012. Available online. Last accessed April 12, 2019.
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  18. Gopal AK, Chen R, Smith SE, et al.: Durable remissions in a pivotal phase 2 study of brentuximab vedotin in relapsed or refractory Hodgkin lymphoma. Blood 125 (8): 1236-43, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
  19. Chen R, Gopal AK, Smith SE, et al.: Five-year survival and durability results of brentuximab vedotin in patients with relapsed or refractory Hodgkin lymphoma. Blood 128 (12): 1562-6, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
  20. Flerlage JE, Metzger ML, Wu J, et al.: Pharmacokinetics, immunogenicity, and safety of weekly dosing of brentuximab vedotin in pediatric patients with Hodgkin lymphoma. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 78 (6): 1217-1223, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
  21. Cole PD, McCarten KM, Pei Q, et al.: Brentuximab vedotin with gemcitabine for paediatric and young adult patients with relapsed or refractory Hodgkin's lymphoma (AHOD1221): a Children's Oncology Group, multicentre single-arm, phase 1-2 trial. Lancet Oncol 19 (9): 1229-1238, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
  22. Ansell SM, Lesokhin AM, Borrello I, et al.: PD-1 blockade with nivolumab in relapsed or refractory Hodgkin's lymphoma. N Engl J Med 372 (4): 311-9, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
  23. Armand P, Shipp MA, Ribrag V, et al.: Programmed Death-1 Blockade With Pembrolizumab in Patients With Classical Hodgkin Lymphoma After Brentuximab Vedotin Failure. J Clin Oncol 34 (31): 3733-3739, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
  24. Chen R, Zinzani PL, Fanale MA, et al.: Phase II Study of the Efficacy and Safety of Pembrolizumab for Relapsed/Refractory Classic Hodgkin Lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 35 (19): 2125-2132, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
  25. Younes A, Santoro A, Shipp M, et al.: Nivolumab for classical Hodgkin's lymphoma after failure of both autologous stem-cell transplantation and brentuximab vedotin: a multicentre, multicohort, single-arm phase 2 trial. Lancet Oncol 17 (9): 1283-94, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
  26. Rancea M, Monsef I, von Tresckow B, et al.: High-dose chemotherapy followed by autologous stem cell transplantation for patients with relapsed/refractory Hodgkin lymphoma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 6: CD009411, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
  27. Aparicio J, Segura A, Garcerá S, et al.: ESHAP is an active regimen for relapsing Hodgkin's disease. Ann Oncol 10 (5): 593-5, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
  28. Kobrinsky NL, Sposto R, Shah NR, et al.: Outcomes of treatment of children and adolescents with recurrent non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and Hodgkin's disease with dexamethasone, etoposide, cisplatin, cytarabine, and l-asparaginase, maintenance chemotherapy, and transplantation: Children's Cancer Group Study CCG-5912. J Clin Oncol 19 (9): 2390-6, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
  29. Bonfante V, Viviani S, Santoro A, et al.: Ifosfamide and vinorelbine: an active regimen for patients with relapsed or refractory Hodgkin's disease. Br J Haematol 103 (2): 533-5, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
  30. Zinzani PL, Bendandi M, Stefoni V, et al.: Value of gemcitabine treatment in heavily pretreated Hodgkin's disease patients. Haematologica 85 (9): 926-9, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
  31. Santoro A, Bredenfeld H, Devizzi L, et al.: Gemcitabine in the treatment of refractory Hodgkin's disease: results of a multicenter phase II study. J Clin Oncol 18 (13): 2615-9, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
  32. Baker KS, Gordon BG, Gross TG, et al.: Autologous hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation for relapsed or refractory Hodgkin's disease in children and adolescents. J Clin Oncol 17 (3): 825-31, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
  33. Akhtar S, Rauf SM, Elhassan TA, et al.: Outcome analysis of high-dose chemotherapy and autologous stem cell transplantation in adolescent and young adults with relapsed or refractory Hodgkin lymphoma. Ann Hematol 95 (9): 1521-35, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
  34. Shafer JA, Heslop HE, Brenner MK, et al.: Outcome of hematopoietic stem cell transplant as salvage therapy for Hodgkin's lymphoma in adolescents and young adults at a single institution. Leuk Lymphoma 51 (4): 664-70, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
  35. Claviez A, Sureda A, Schmitz N: Haematopoietic SCT for children and adolescents with relapsed and refractory Hodgkin's lymphoma. Bone Marrow Transplant 42 (Suppl 2): S16-24, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
  36. Peniket AJ, Ruiz de Elvira MC, Taghipour G, et al.: An EBMT registry matched study of allogeneic stem cell transplants for lymphoma: allogeneic transplantation is associated with a lower relapse rate but a higher procedure-related mortality rate than autologous transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 31 (8): 667-78, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
  37. Lieskovsky YE, Donaldson SS, Torres MA, et al.: High-dose therapy and autologous hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation for recurrent or refractory pediatric Hodgkin's disease: results and prognostic indices. J Clin Oncol 22 (22): 4532-40, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
  38. Akhtar S, Abdelsalam M, El Weshi A, et al.: High-dose chemotherapy and autologous stem cell transplantation for Hodgkin's lymphoma in the kingdom of Saudi Arabia: King Faisal specialist hospital and research center experience. Bone Marrow Transplant 42 (Suppl 1): S37-S40, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
  39. Harris RE, Termuhlen AM, Smith LM, et al.: Autologous peripheral blood stem cell transplantation in children with refractory or relapsed lymphoma: results of Children's Oncology Group study A5962. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 17 (2): 249-58, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
  40. Moskowitz CH, Nademanee A, Masszi T, et al.: Brentuximab vedotin as consolidation therapy after autologous stem-cell transplantation in patients with Hodgkin's lymphoma at risk of relapse or progression (AETHERA): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet 385 (9980): 1853-62, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
  41. Locatelli F, Mauz-Koerholz C, Neville K, et al.: Brentuximab vedotin for paediatric relapsed or refractory Hodgkin's lymphoma and anaplastic large-cell lymphoma: a multicentre, open-label, phase 1/2 study. Lancet Haematol 5 (10): e450-e461, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
  42. Wadehra N, Farag S, Bolwell B, et al.: Long-term outcome of Hodgkin disease patients following high-dose busulfan, etoposide, cyclophosphamide, and autologous stem cell transplantation. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 12 (12): 1343-9, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
  43. Gupta A, Gokarn A, Rajamanickam D, et al.: Lomustine, cytarabine, cyclophosphamide, etoposide - An effective conditioning regimen in autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplant for primary refractory or relapsed lymphoma: Analysis of toxicity, long-term outcome, and prognostic factors. J Cancer Res Ther 14 (5): 926-933, 2018 Jul-Sep. [PUBMED Abstract]
  44. Jabbour E, Hosing C, Ayers G, et al.: Pretransplant positive positron emission tomography/gallium scans predict poor outcome in patients with recurrent/refractory Hodgkin lymphoma. Cancer 109 (12): 2481-9, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
  45. Satwani P, Ahn KW, Carreras J, et al.: A prognostic model predicting autologous transplantation outcomes in children, adolescents and young adults with Hodgkin lymphoma. Bone Marrow Transplant 50 (11): 1416-23, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
  46. Cooney JP, Stiff PJ, Toor AA, et al.: BEAM allogeneic transplantation for patients with Hodgkin's disease who relapse after autologous transplantation is safe and effective. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 9 (3): 177-82, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
  47. Claviez A, Klingebiel T, Beyer J, et al.: Allogeneic peripheral blood stem cell transplantation following fludarabine-based conditioning in six children with advanced Hodgkin's disease. Ann Hematol 83 (4): 237-41, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
  48. Sureda A, Schmitz N: Role of allogeneic stem cell transplantation in relapsed or refractory Hodgkin's disease. Ann Oncol 13 (Suppl 1): 128-32, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
  49. Carella AM, Cavaliere M, Lerma E, et al.: Autografting followed by nonmyeloablative immunosuppressive chemotherapy and allogeneic peripheral-blood hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation as treatment of resistant Hodgkin's disease and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 18 (23): 3918-24, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
  50. Robinson SP, Goldstone AH, Mackinnon S, et al.: Chemoresistant or aggressive lymphoma predicts for a poor outcome following reduced-intensity allogeneic progenitor cell transplantation: an analysis from the Lymphoma Working Party of the European Group for Blood and Bone Marrow Transplantation. Blood 100 (13): 4310-6, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
  51. Devetten MP, Hari PN, Carreras J, et al.: Unrelated donor reduced-intensity allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for relapsed and refractory Hodgkin lymphoma. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 15 (1): 109-17, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
  52. Robinson SP, Sureda A, Canals C, et al.: Reduced intensity conditioning allogeneic stem cell transplantation for Hodgkin's lymphoma: identification of prognostic factors predicting outcome. Haematologica 94 (2): 230-8, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
  53. Rauf MS, Maghfoor I, Elhassan TA, et al.: High-dose chemotherapy and auto-SCT for relapsed and refractory Hodgkin's lymphoma patients refractory to first-line salvage chemotherapy but responsive to second-line salvage chemotherapy. Med Oncol 32 (1): 388, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
  54. Wadhwa P, Shina DC, Schenkein D, et al.: Should involved-field radiation therapy be used as an adjunct to lymphoma autotransplantation? Bone Marrow Transplant 29 (3): 183-9, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
  55. Constine LS, Yahalom J, Ng AK, et al.: The Role of Radiation Therapy in Patients With Relapsed or Refractory Hodgkin Lymphoma: Guidelines From the International Lymphoma Radiation Oncology Group. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 100 (5): 1100-1118, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
  56. Morabito F, Stelitano C, Luminari S, et al.: The role of high-dose therapy and autologous stem cell transplantation in patients with primary refractory Hodgkin's lymphoma: a report from the Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio dei Linfomi (GISL). Bone Marrow Transplant 37 (3): 283-8, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
  57. Akhtar S, El Weshi A, Rahal M, et al.: High-dose chemotherapy and autologous stem cell transplant in adolescent patients with relapsed or refractory Hodgkin's lymphoma. Bone Marrow Transplant 45 (3): 476-82, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
  58. Moskowitz CH, Kewalramani T, Nimer SD, et al.: Effectiveness of high dose chemoradiotherapy and autologous stem cell transplantation for patients with biopsy-proven primary refractory Hodgkin's disease. Br J Haematol 124 (5): 645-52, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]

Special Considerations for the Treatment of Children With Cancer

Cancer in children and adolescents is rare, although the overall incidence of childhood cancer has been slowly increasing since 1975.[1] Children and adolescents with cancer should be referred to medical centers that have a multidisciplinary team of cancer specialists with experience treating the cancers that occur during childhood and adolescence. This multidisciplinary team approach incorporates the skills of the following health care professionals and others to ensure that children receive treatment, supportive care, and rehabilitation that will achieve optimal survival and quality of life:
  • Primary care physicians.
  • Pediatric surgeons.
  • Radiation oncologists.
  • Pediatric medical oncologists and hematologists.
  • Rehabilitation specialists.
  • Pediatric nurse specialists.
  • Social workers.
  • Child life professionals.
  • Psychologists.
(Refer to the PDQ Supportive and Palliative Care summaries for specific information about supportive care for children and adolescents with cancer.)
Guidelines for pediatric cancer centers and their role in the treatment of pediatric patients with cancer have been outlined by the American Academy of Pediatrics.[2] At these pediatric cancer centers, clinical trials are available for most types of cancer that occur in children and adolescents, and the opportunity to participate in these trials is offered to most patients and their families. Clinical trials for children and adolescents with cancer are generally designed to compare potentially better therapy with therapy that is currently accepted as standard. Most of the progress made in identifying curative therapies for childhood cancers has been achieved through clinical trials. Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI website.
References
  1. Smith MA, Altekruse SF, Adamson PC, et al.: Declining childhood and adolescent cancer mortality. Cancer 120 (16): 2497-506, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
  2. Corrigan JJ, Feig SA; American Academy of Pediatrics: Guidelines for pediatric cancer centers. Pediatrics 113 (6): 1833-5, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]

Late Effects From Childhood/Adolescent Hodgkin Lymphoma Therapy

Childhood and adolescent survivors of Hodgkin lymphoma may be at risk of developing numerous late complications of treatment related to radiation, specific chemotherapeutic exposures, and surgical staging.[1,2] Adverse treatment effects may impact the following:
In the past 30 to 40 years, pediatric Hodgkin lymphoma therapy has changed dramatically to proactively limit exposure to radiation and chemotherapeutic agents, such as anthracyclines, alkylating agents, and bleomycin. When counseling individual patients about the risk of specific treatment complications, the era of treatment should be considered.
Table 10 summarizes late health effects observed in Hodgkin lymphoma survivors, followed by a limited discussion of the common late effects. (Refer to the PDQ summary on Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer for a full discussion of the late effects of cancer treatment in children and adolescents.)
Table 10. Treatment Complications Observed in Hodgkin Lymphoma Survivors
Health EffectsPredisposing TherapyClinical Manifestations
ReproductiveAlkylating agent chemotherapyHypogonadism
Gonadal irradiationInfertility
ThyroidRadiation impacting thyroid glandHypothyroidism
Hyperthyroidism
Thyroid nodules
CardiovascularRadiation impacting cardiovascular structuresSubclinical left ventricular dysfunction
Cardiomyopathy
Pericarditis
Heart valve dysfunction
Conduction disorder
Coronary, carotid, subclavian vascular disease
Myocardial infarction
Stroke
Anthracycline chemotherapySubclinical left ventricular dysfunction
Cardiomyopathy
Congestive heart failure
Subsequent neoplasms or diseaseAlkylating agent chemotherapyMyelodysplasia/acute myeloid leukemia
EpipodophyllotoxinsMyelodysplasia/acute myeloid leukemia
RadiationSolid benign and malignant neoplasms
Oral or dentalAny chemotherapy in a patient who has not developed permanent dentitionDental maldevelopment (tooth or root agenesis, microdontia, root thinning and shortening, enamel dysplasia)
Radiation impacting oral cavity and salivary glandsSalivary gland dysfunction
Xerostomia
Accelerated dental decay
Periodontal disease
PulmonaryRadiation impacting the lungsSubclinical pulmonary dysfunction
BleomycinPulmonary fibrosis
MusculoskeletalRadiation of musculoskeletal tissues in any patient who is not skeletally matureGrowth impairment
GlucocorticosteroidsBone mineral density deficit
Multiple sclerosis
ImmuneSplenectomyOverwhelming post-splenectomy sepsis

Male Gonadal Toxicity

Important concepts related to male gonadal toxicity include the following:
  • Gonadal irradiation and alkylating agent chemotherapy may produce testicular Leydig cell or germ cell dysfunction, with risk related to cumulative dose of both modalities.
  • Hypoandrogenism associated with Leydig cell dysfunction may manifest as lack of sexual development; small, atrophic testicles; and sexual dysfunction. Hypoandrogenism also increases the risk of osteoporosis and metabolic disorders associated with chronic disease.[3,4]
  • Testicular Leydig cells are relatively resistant to treatment toxicity compared with testicular germ cells. Survivors who are azoospermic after gonadal toxic therapy may maintain adequate testosterone production.[5-7]
  • Infertility caused by azoospermia is the most common manifestation of gonadal toxicity. Some pubertal male patients will have impaired spermatogenesis before they begin therapy.[8,9]
  • The prepubertal testicle is likely equally or slightly less sensitive to chemotherapy compared with the pubertal testicle. Pubertal status is not protective of chemotherapy-associated gonadal toxicity.[6,7]
  • Chemotherapy regimens that do not include alkylating agents such as ABVD (doxorubicin [Adriamycin], bleomycin, vinblastine, dacarbazine), ABVE (doxorubicin [Adriamycin], bleomycin, vincristine, etoposide), OEPA (vincristine [Oncovin], etoposide, prednisone, doxorubicin [Adriamycin]), or VAMP (vincristine, doxorubicin [Adriamycin], methotrexate, prednisone) are not associated with male infertility.
  • ABVE-PC (prednisone and cyclophosphamide) and OEPA-COPDAC (cyclophosphamide, vincristine, prednisone, dacarbazine) are titrated to limit alkylating agent dose to below the usual threshold associated with male sterility. Investigations evaluating germ cell function in relation to single alkylating agent exposure suggest that the incidence of permanent azoospermia will be low if the cyclophosphamide dose is less than 7.5 g/m2.[7,10]
  • Chemotherapy regimens that include more than one alkylating agent, usually procarbazine in conjunction with cyclophosphamide (i.e., COPP [cyclophosphamide, vincristine (Oncovin), prednisone, procarbazine]), chlorambucil, or nitrogen mustard (MOPP) confer a high risk of permanent azoospermia if treatment exceeds three cycles.[11,12]
(Refer to the Testis section in the PDQ summary on Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer for more information.)

Female Gonadal Toxicity

Ovarian hormone production is linked to the maturation of primordial follicles. Depletion of follicles by alkylating agent chemotherapy can potentially affect both fertility and ovarian hormone production. Because of their greater complement of primordial follicles, the ovaries of young and adolescent girls are less sensitive to the effects of alkylating agents than are the ovaries of older women. In general, girls maintain ovarian function at higher cumulative alkylating agent doses compared with the germ cell function maintained in boys.
Important concepts related to female gonadal toxicity include the following:
  • Most females treated with contemporary risk-adapted therapy will have menarche (if prepubertal at treatment) or regain normal menses (if pubertal at treatment) unless pelvic radiation therapy is given without oophoropexy. Current regimens used in pediatric oncology are tailored to minimize the risk of ovarian failure. Data presented below related to pediatric treatment before 1987 [13,14] or adult trials in Europe (European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer H1–H9 trials) [15] are not likely reflective of the expected reproductive outcomes in the current era.
  • Ovarian transposition to a lateral or medial region from the planned radiation volume may preserve ovarian function in young and adolescent girls who require pelvic radiation therapy for lymphoma.[16] Ovarian transposition did not appear to modify risk of premature ovarian insufficiency in a cohort of 49 long-term survivors of Hodgkin lymphoma enrolled in the St. Jude Lifetime Cohort Study treated with gonadotoxic therapy who underwent ovarian transposition before pelvic radiation therapy.[17]
  • The risk of acute ovarian failure and premature menopause is substantial if treatment includes combined-modality therapy with alkylating agent chemotherapy and abdominal or pelvic radiation or dose-intensive alkylating agents for myeloablative conditioning before hematopoietic cell transplantation.[13,14] The risk of ovarian failure after treatment with contemporary regimens using lower cumulative doses of cyclophosphamide without procarbazine is anticipated to be lower.
  • In the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study (CCSS), investigators observed that Hodgkin lymphoma survivors were among the highest risk groups for acute ovarian failure and early menopause. In this cohort, the cumulative incidence of nonsurgical premature menopause among survivors treated with alkylating agents and abdominal or pelvic radiation approached 30%.[13,14] These patients were treated before 1986, usually with substantially higher doses of alkylating agents than are used in current regimens in the Children's Oncology Group, EuroNet, or other consortiums.
  • A German study demonstrated that parenthood for female survivors of Hodgkin lymphoma was similar to that of the general population, although parenthood was lower for survivors who received pelvic radiation therapy.[18]
(Refer to the Ovary section in the PDQ summary on Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer for more information.)

Thyroid Abnormalities

Abnormalities of the thyroid gland, including hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, and thyroid neoplasms have been reported to occur at a higher rate among survivors of Hodgkin lymphoma than in the general population.
  • Hypothyroidism. Risk factors for hypothyroidism include increasing dose of radiation, female sex, and older age at diagnosis.[19-21] CCSS investigators reported a 20-year actuarial risk of 30% of developing hypothyroidism in Hodgkin lymphoma survivors treated with 3,500 cGy to 4,499 cGy of radiation and 50% for subjects whose thyroid received 4,500 cGy or more of radiation.
    Hypothyroidism develops most often in the first 5 years after treatment, but new cases have been reported to emerge more than 20 years after the diagnosis.[20]
  • Hyperthyroidism. Hyperthyroidism has been observed after treatment for Hodgkin lymphoma, with a clinical picture similar to that of Graves disease.[22] Higher radiation dose has been associated with greater risk of hyperthyroidism.[20]
  • Subsequent neoplasms. Thyroid neoplasms, both benign and malignant, have been reported with increased frequency after neck irradiation. The incidence of nodules varies substantially across studies (2%–65%) depending on the length of follow-up and detection methods used.[19-21]
    The relative risk (RR) of thyroid cancer is increased among Hodgkin lymphoma survivors (approximately 18-fold for the CCSS Hodgkin lymphoma cohort compared with the general population).[21] Risk factors for the development of thyroid nodules in Hodgkin lymphoma survivors reported by CCSS include time since diagnosis of more than 10 years (RR, 4.8; 95% confidence interval [CI], 3.0–7.8), female sex (RR, 4.0; 95% CI, 2.5–6.7), and radiation dose to thyroid higher than 25 Gy (RR, 2.9; 95% CI, 1.4–6.9).[21] The absolute risk of thyroid cancer is relatively low, with approximately 1% of the CCSS Hodgkin cohort developing thyroid cancer, with a median follow-up of approximately 15 years.[21]
    A single-institution Hodgkin lymphoma survivor cohort that included both adult and pediatric cases showed a cumulative incidence of thyroid cancer at 10 years from diagnosis of 0.26%, increasing to approximately 3% at 30 years from diagnosis. In this cohort, age younger than 20 years at Hodgkin lymphoma diagnosis and female sex were significantly associated with thyroid cancer.[23]
(Refer to the Thyroid Gland section in the PDQ summary on Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer summary for more information.)

Cardiac Toxicity

Hodgkin lymphoma survivors exposed to doxorubicin or thoracic radiation therapy are at risk of long-term cardiac toxicity. The effects of thoracic radiation therapy are difficult to separate from those of anthracyclines because few children undergo thoracic radiation therapy without the use of anthracyclines. The pathogenesis of injury differs, however, with radiation primarily affecting the fine vasculature of the heart, and anthracyclines directly damaging myocytes.[24-26]
Survivors of childhood Hodgkin lymphoma older than 50 years will experience more than two times the number of chronic cardiovascular health conditions and nearly five times the number of more severe (grades 3–5) cardiovascular conditions compared with community controls and, on average, have one severe, life-threatening, or fatal cardiovascular condition.[27]
Cardiac mortality is higher for survivors of adolescent Hodgkin lymphoma than for survivors of young adult Hodgkin lymphoma. This was demonstrated in the Teenage and Young Adult Cancer Survivor Study cohort, with standardized mortality ratios (SMR) of 10.4 (95% CI, 8.1–13.3) for those diagnosed at age 15 and 19 years, compared with an SMR of 2.8 (95% CI, 2.3–3.4) for those diagnosed at age 35 to 39 years.[28]

Radiation-associated cardiovascular toxicity

  • Late effects of radiation to the heart may include the following:[29-32]
    • Delayed pericarditis.
    • Pancarditis including pericardial and myocardial fibrosis, with or without endocardial fibroelastosis.
    • Cardiomyopathy.
    • Coronary artery disease.[26,32]
    • Functional valve injury.[26,33]
    • Conduction defects.
    The risks to the heart are related to the amount of radiation delivered to different depths of the heart, volume and specific areas of the heart irradiated, total and fractional irradiation dose, age at exposure, and latency period.
  • Modern radiation techniques allow a reduction in the volume of cardiac tissue incidentally exposed to higher radiation doses. It is anticipated that this will reduce the risk of adverse cardiac events.
  • Austrian-German investigators evaluated the development of cardiac disease (via patient self-report supplemented by physician report) in a cohort of 1,132 pediatric Hodgkin lymphoma survivors monitored for a median of 20 years. The 25-year cumulative incidence of heart disease increased with higher mediastinal radiation doses: 3% (unirradiated), 5% (20 Gy), 6% (25 Gy), 10% (30 Gy), and 21% (36 Gy). Valve defects were most common, followed by coronary artery disease, cardiomyopathy, rhythm disorders, and pericardial abnormalities.[33]
  • In a study of adult survivors of Hodgkin lymphoma, vigorous exercise lowered the risk of cardiovascular events, independent of the treatment received.[34]

Anthracycline-related cardiac toxicity

  • Late complications related to anthracycline injury may include subclinical left ventricular dysfunction, cardiomyopathy, and congestive heart failure.[26]
  • Increased risk of doxorubicin-related cardiomyopathy is associated with female sex, cumulative doses higher than 200 mg/m2 to 300 mg/m2, younger age at time of exposure, and increased time from exposure.[35]
  • Prevention or amelioration of anthracycline-induced cardiomyopathy is important because the continued usage of anthracyclines is required in cancer therapy in more than one-half of children with newly diagnosed cancer.[36,37]
  • Dexrazoxane (a bisdioxopiperazine compound that readily enters cells and is subsequently hydrolyzed to form a chelating agent) has been shown to prevent heart damage in adults and children treated with anthracyclines.[38] Studies suggest that dexrazoxane is safe and does not interfere with chemotherapeutic efficacy. Dexrazoxane has been associated with increased hematologic toxicity and typhlitis in children with Hodgkin lymphoma receiving ABVE-PC chemotherapy.[39]
  • A number of trials have studied the risk of subsequent neoplasms following dexrazoxane administration and none have found a significant association with subsequent neoplasms.[40,41] However, one study found a borderline statistical increase in subsequent neoplasms in patients randomly assigned to receive dexrazoxane that was attributed to the administration of three topoisomerase inhibitors (doxorubicin, etoposide, and dexrazoxane) within 2 to 3 hours of each other.[42]
  • Studies of cancer survivors treated with anthracyclines have not demonstrated the benefit of enalapril in preventing progressive cardiac toxicity.[43,44]
(Refer to the Late Effects of the Cardiovascular System section in the PDQ summary on Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer for more information.)

Subsequent Neoplasms

A number of series evaluating the incidence of subsequent neoplasms in survivors of childhood and adolescent Hodgkin lymphoma have been published.[45-54]; [55][Level of evidence: 3iii] Many of the patients included in these series received high-dose radiation therapy and high-dose alkylating agent chemotherapy regimens, which are no longer used.
  • Subsequent neoplasms comprise two distinct groups:[56,57]
    • Myelodysplasia and acute myeloid leukemia (AML) that are chemotherapy related.
      Subsequent hematological malignancy (most commonly AML and myelodysplasia) is related to the use of alkylating agents, anthracycline, and etoposide and exhibit a brief latency period (<10 years from the primary cancer).[58] This excess risk is largely related to cases of myelodysplasia and subsequent AML. A single-study experience suggests that there could be an increase in malignancies when multiple topoisomerase inhibitors are administered in close proximity.[42] Clinical trials using dexrazoxane in childhood leukemia have not observed an excess risk of subsequent neoplasms.[42,59,60]
      Chemotherapy-related myelodysplasia and AML are less prevalent following contemporary therapy because of the restriction of cumulative alkylating agent doses.[61,62]
    • Solid neoplasms that are predominately radiation related.
      Solid neoplasms most often involve the skin, breast, thyroid, gastrointestinal tract, lung, and head and neck, with risk increasing with radiation dose.[52,54,63]; [55][Level of evidence: 3iii] The risk of a solid subsequent neoplasm escalates with the passage of time after diagnosis of Hodgkin lymphoma, with a latency of 20 years or more. (Refer to the Thyroid Abnormalities section of this summary for more information about subsequent thyroid neoplasms.)
      Breast cancer is the most common therapy-related solid subsequent neoplasm after Hodgkin lymphoma:
      • The absolute excess risk of breast cancer ranges from 18.6 to 79 per 10,000 person-years, and the cumulative incidence ranges from 12% to 26%, 25 to 30 years after radiation exposure.[51,64-66]
      • High risk of breast cancer has been found to increase as early as 8 years from radiation exposure, is rare before age 25 years, and continues to increase with time from exposure. Importantly, breast cancer in female childhood cancer survivors typically develops at least 25 years earlier than that of primary breast cancer in the general population and often years before the implementation of population-based screening.[51]
      • The cumulative incidence of breast cancer by age 40 to 45 years ranges from 13% to 20%, compared with a 1% risk for women in the general population.[51,64,66,67] This risk is similar to what is observed for women with a BRCAgene mutation, where, by age 40 years, the cumulative incidence of breast cancer ranges from 10% to 19%.[68]
      • The risk of breast cancer in female survivors of Hodgkin lymphoma is directly related to the dose of radiation therapy received over a range from 4 Gy to 40 Gy.[69] Female patients treated with both radiation therapy and alkylating agent chemotherapy have a lower RR of developing breast cancer than women receiving radiation therapy alone.[52,70] CCSS investigators also demonstrated that breast cancer risk associated with breast irradiation was sharply reduced among women who received 5 Gy or more to the ovaries.[71] The protective effect of alkylating chemotherapy and ovarian radiation is believed to be mediated through induction of premature menopause, suggesting that hormone stimulation contributes to the development of radiation-induced breast cancer.[72]
  • Hereditary syndromes, other than high-risk breast cancer syndromes, may modify the effect of radiation exposure on breast cancer risk after childhood cancer.[73]
  • A study of women survivors who received chest radiation for Hodgkin lymphoma showed that one of the most important factors in obtaining breast cancer screenings per guidelines was recommendation from their treating physician.[74] Standard guidelines for routine breast screening are available. The COG guidelinesrecommend annual screening with magnetic resonance imaging and mammograms for women beginning 8 years after treatment or at age 25 years, whichever is later.[74]
(Refer to the Subsequent Neoplasms section in the PDQ summary on Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer for more information.)
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  55. Holmqvist AS, Chen Y, Berano Teh J, et al.: Risk of solid subsequent malignant neoplasms after childhood Hodgkin lymphoma-identification of high-risk populations to guide surveillance: A report from the Late Effects Study Group. Cancer : , 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
  56. Reulen RC, Frobisher C, Winter DL, et al.: Long-term risks of subsequent primary neoplasms among survivors of childhood cancer. JAMA 305 (22): 2311-9, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
  57. Friedman DL, Whitton J, Leisenring W, et al.: Subsequent neoplasms in 5-year survivors of childhood cancer: the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study. J Natl Cancer Inst 102 (14): 1083-95, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
  58. Le Deley MC, Leblanc T, Shamsaldin A, et al.: Risk of secondary leukemia after a solid tumor in childhood according to the dose of epipodophyllotoxins and anthracyclines: a case-control study by the Société Française d'Oncologie Pédiatrique. J Clin Oncol 21 (6): 1074-81, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
  59. Lipshultz SE, Scully RE, Lipsitz SR, et al.: Assessment of dexrazoxane as a cardioprotectant in doxorubicin-treated children with high-risk acute lymphoblastic leukaemia: long-term follow-up of a prospective, randomised, multicentre trial. Lancet Oncol 11 (10): 950-61, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
  60. Barry EV, Vrooman LM, Dahlberg SE, et al.: Absence of secondary malignant neoplasms in children with high-risk acute lymphoblastic leukemia treated with dexrazoxane. J Clin Oncol 26 (7): 1106-11, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
  61. Koontz MZ, Horning SJ, Balise R, et al.: Risk of therapy-related secondary leukemia in Hodgkin lymphoma: the Stanford University experience over three generations of clinical trials. J Clin Oncol 31 (5): 592-8, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
  62. Schellong G, Riepenhausen M, Creutzig U, et al.: Low risk of secondary leukemias after chemotherapy without mechlorethamine in childhood Hodgkin's disease. German-Austrian Pediatric Hodgkin's Disease Group. J Clin Oncol 15 (6): 2247-53, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
  63. Daniëls LA, Krol AD, Schaapveld M, et al.: Long-term risk of secondary skin cancers after radiation therapy for Hodgkin's lymphoma. Radiother Oncol 109 (1): 140-5, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
  64. Kenney LB, Yasui Y, Inskip PD, et al.: Breast cancer after childhood cancer: a report from the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study. Ann Intern Med 141 (8): 590-7, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
  65. Ng AK, Bernardo MV, Weller E, et al.: Second malignancy after Hodgkin disease treated with radiation therapy with or without chemotherapy: long-term risks and risk factors. Blood 100 (6): 1989-96, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
  66. Taylor AJ, Winter DL, Stiller CA, et al.: Risk of breast cancer in female survivors of childhood Hodgkin's disease in Britain: a population-based study. Int J Cancer 120 (2): 384-91, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
  67. Henderson TO, Amsterdam A, Bhatia S, et al.: Systematic review: surveillance for breast cancer in women treated with chest radiation for childhood, adolescent, or young adult cancer. Ann Intern Med 152 (7): 444-55; W144-54, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
  68. Easton DF, Ford D, Bishop DT: Breast and ovarian cancer incidence in BRCA1-mutation carriers. Breast Cancer Linkage Consortium. Am J Hum Genet 56 (1): 265-71, 1995. [PUBMED Abstract]
  69. Alm El-Din MA, Hughes KS, Finkelstein DM, et al.: Breast cancer after treatment of Hodgkin's lymphoma: risk factors that really matter. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 73 (1): 69-74, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
  70. Travis LB, Hill DA, Dores GM, et al.: Breast cancer following radiotherapy and chemotherapy among young women with Hodgkin disease. JAMA 290 (4): 465-75, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
  71. Inskip PD, Robison LL, Stovall M, et al.: Radiation dose and breast cancer risk in the childhood cancer survivor study. J Clin Oncol 27 (24): 3901-7, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
  72. De Bruin ML, Sparidans J, van't Veer MB, et al.: Breast cancer risk in female survivors of Hodgkin's lymphoma: lower risk after smaller radiation volumes. J Clin Oncol 27 (26): 4239-46, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
  73. Morton LM, Sampson JN, Armstrong GT, et al.: Genome-Wide Association Study to Identify Susceptibility Loci That Modify Radiation-Related Risk for Breast Cancer After Childhood Cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 109 (11): , 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
  74. Oeffinger KC, Ford JS, Moskowitz CS, et al.: Breast cancer surveillance practices among women previously treated with chest radiation for a childhood cancer. JAMA 301 (4): 404-14, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]

Changes to This Summary (04/12/2019)

The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as new information becomes available. This section describes the latest changes made to this summary as of the date above.
General Information About Childhood Hodgkin Lymphoma
Added Table 1 describing the epidemiology of Hodgkin lymphoma across the age spectrum (cited Punnett et al. as reference 13).
Added text to state that female patients with large mediastinal masses and B symptoms are most likely to present with pericardial effusions (cited Marks et al. as reference 33 and level of evidence 3iiC).
Added presence of a pericardial effusion as a pretreatment factor associated with an adverse outcome.
Treatment of Newly Diagnosed Children and Adolescents with Hodgkin Lymphoma
Added Marks et al. as reference 29.
Treatment of Primary Refractory or Recurrent Hodgkin Lymphoma in Children and Adolescents
Added text about the results of studies that used pembrolizumab to treat patients with relapsed Hodgkin lymphoma (added level of evidence 3iiiDiv).
Added text about the results of a phase I/II study that evaluated the safety, maximum tolerated dose, and pharmacokinetics of brentuximab vedotin and identified a recommended phase II dose in 36 pediatric patients with relapsed or refractory classical Hodgkin lymphoma and anaplastic large cell lymphoma (cited Locatelli et al. as reference 41 and level of evidence 3iii).
Revised text to state that other noncarmustine-containing preparative regimens have been utilized, including high-dose busulfan, etoposide, and cyclophosphamide and lomustine, cytarabine, cyclophosphamide, and etoposide (cited Gupta et al. as reference 43 and level of evidence 3iii).
Late Effects From Childhood/Adolescent Hodgkin Lymphoma Therapy
Added Holmqvist et al. as reference 55 and level of evidence 3iii.
This summary is written and maintained by the PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of NCI. The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or NIH. More information about summary policies and the role of the PDQ Editorial Boards in maintaining the PDQ summaries can be found on the About This PDQ Summary and PDQ® - NCI's Comprehensive Cancer Database pages.

About This PDQ Summary

Purpose of This Summary

This PDQ cancer information summary for health professionals provides comprehensive, peer-reviewed, evidence-based information about the treatment of childhood Hodgkin lymphoma. It is intended as a resource to inform and assist clinicians who care for cancer patients. It does not provide formal guidelines or recommendations for making health care decisions.

Reviewers and Updates

This summary is reviewed regularly and updated as necessary by the PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of the National Cancer Institute (NCI). The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or the National Institutes of Health (NIH).
Board members review recently published articles each month to determine whether an article should:
  • be discussed at a meeting,
  • be cited with text, or
  • replace or update an existing article that is already cited.
Changes to the summaries are made through a consensus process in which Board members evaluate the strength of the evidence in the published articles and determine how the article should be included in the summary.
The lead reviewers for Childhood Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment are:
  • Louis S. Constine, MD (James P. Wilmot Cancer Center at University of Rochester Medical Center)
  • Alan Scott Gamis, MD, MPH (Children's Mercy Hospital)
  • Thomas G. Gross, MD, PhD (National Cancer Institute)
  • Melissa Maria Hudson, MD (St. Jude Children's Research Hospital)
  • Kenneth L. McClain, MD, PhD (Texas Children's Cancer Center and Hematology Service at Texas Children's Hospital)
  • Arthur Kim Ritchey, MD (Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC)
  • Malcolm A. Smith, MD, PhD (National Cancer Institute)
Any comments or questions about the summary content should be submitted to Cancer.gov through the NCI website's Email Us. Do not contact the individual Board Members with questions or comments about the summaries. Board members will not respond to individual inquiries.

Levels of Evidence

Some of the reference citations in this summary are accompanied by a level-of-evidence designation. These designations are intended to help readers assess the strength of the evidence supporting the use of specific interventions or approaches. The PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board uses a formal evidence ranking system in developing its level-of-evidence designations.

Permission to Use This Summary

PDQ is a registered trademark. Although the content of PDQ documents can be used freely as text, it cannot be identified as an NCI PDQ cancer information summary unless it is presented in its entirety and is regularly updated. However, an author would be permitted to write a sentence such as “NCI’s PDQ cancer information summary about breast cancer prevention states the risks succinctly: [include excerpt from the summary].”
The preferred citation for this PDQ summary is:
PDQ® Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Childhood Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Updated <MM/DD/YYYY>. Available at: https://www.cancer.gov/types/lymphoma/hp/child-hodgkin-treatment-pdq. Accessed <MM/DD/YYYY>. [PMID: 26389170]
Images in this summary are used with permission of the author(s), artist, and/or publisher for use within the PDQ summaries only. Permission to use images outside the context of PDQ information must be obtained from the owner(s) and cannot be granted by the National Cancer Institute. Information about using the illustrations in this summary, along with many other cancer-related images, is available in Visuals Online, a collection of over 2,000 scientific images.

Disclaimer

Based on the strength of the available evidence, treatment options may be described as either “standard” or “under clinical evaluation.” These classifications should not be used as a basis for insurance reimbursement determinations. More information on insurance coverage is available on Cancer.gov on the Managing Cancer Care page.

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More information about contacting us or receiving help with the Cancer.gov website can be found on our Contact Us for Help page. Questions can also be submitted to Cancer.gov through the website’s Email Us.
  • Updated: April 12, 2019
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