Prostate Cancer Treatment (PDQ®) 6/8 –Health Professional Version - National Cancer Institute

Prostate Cancer Treatment (PDQ®)–Health Professional Version - National Cancer Institute

Prostate Cancer Treatment (PDQ®)–Health Professional Version

Stage III Prostate Cancer Treatment

In This Section

• Overview
• Standard Treatment Options for Stage III Prostate Cancer
  • External-beam radiation therapy (EBRT) with or without hormonal therapy
  • Hormonal manipulations (with or without radiation therapy)
  • Radical prostatectomy with or without EBRT
  • Watchful waiting or active surveillance/active monitoring
• Treatment of Symptoms
• Current Clinical Trials

Overview

Stage III prostate cancer is defined by the American Joint Committee on Cancer's TNM (tumor, node, metastasis) classification system:[1]

Stage IIIA

• T1–2, N0, M0, prostate-specific antigen (PSA) ≥20, Gleason ≤6–8.

Stage IIIB

• T3–4, N0, M0, any PSA, Gleason ≤6–8.

Stage IIIC

• Any T, N0, M0, any PSA, Gleason 9 or 10.

Extraprostatic extension with microscopic bladder neck invasion (T4) is included with T3a.

External-beam radiation therapy (EBRT), interstitial implantation of radioisotopes, and radical prostatectomy are used to treat stage III prostate cancer.[2] Prognosis is greatly affected by whether regional lymph nodes are evaluated and proven not to be involved.

EBRT using a linear accelerator is the most common treatment for patients with stage III prostate cancer, and large series support its success in achieving local disease control and disease-free survival (DFS).[3,4] The results of radical prostatectomy in stage III patients are greatly inferior compared with results in patients with stage II cancer. Interstitial implantation of radioisotopes is technically difficult in large tumors.

The patient’s symptoms related to cancer, age, and coexisting medical illnesses should be considered before deciding on a therapeutic plan. In a series of 372 patients treated with radiation therapy and followed for 20 years, 47% eventually died of prostate cancer, but 44% died of intercurrent illnesses without evidence of prostate cancer.[4]

Standard Treatment Options for Stage III Prostate Cancer

Standard treatment options for patients with stage III prostate cancer include the following:

1. External-beam radiation therapy (EBRT) with or without hormonal therapy.
2. Hormonal manipulations (with or without radiation therapy).
3. Radical prostatectomy with or without EBRT.
4. Watchful waiting or active surveillance/active monitoring.

External-beam radiation therapy (EBRT) with or without hormonal therapy

EBRT alone,[3-7] luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LH-RH) agonist, or orchiectomy, in addition to EBRT, should be considered.[8-16] Definitive radiation therapy should be delayed until 4 to 6 weeks after transurethral resection to reduce the incidence of stricture.[17]

Hormonal therapy should be considered in conjunction with radiation therapy especially in men who do not have underlying moderate or severe comorbidities.[8,9] Several studies have investigated its utility in patients with locally advanced disease.

Evidence (EBRT with or without hormonal therapy):

1. Although patients in the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group (RTOG) RTOG-9413 (NCT00769548) trial showed a 15% estimated risk of lymph node involvement and received whole-pelvic radiation therapy compared with prostate-only radiation therapy, overall survival (OS) and PSA failure rates were not significantly different.[18]; [19][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii]
2. In a randomized trial, 875 men with locally advanced nonmetastatic prostate cancer (T1b–T2 moderately or poorly differentiated tumors; T3 tumors of any grade) were randomly assigned to receive 3 months of an LH-RH agonist plus long-term flutamide (250 mg PO tid) with or without EBRT. Nineteen percent of the men had tumor stage T2, and 78% of the men had stage T3.[20][Level of evidence; 1iiA]
   • At 10 years, both overall mortality (29.6% vs. 39.4%; 95% confidence interval [CI] for the difference, 0.8%–8.8%) and the prostate cancer-specific mortality (11.9% vs. 23.9%; 95% CI for the difference, 4.9%–19.1%) favored combined hormonal and radiation therapy.
   • Although flutamide might not be considered a standard hormonal monotherapy in the setting of T2 or T3 tumors, radiation therapy provided a DFS or tumor-specific survival advantage even though this monotherapy was applied. This analysis rests on the assumption that flutamide does not shorten life expectancy and cancer-specific survival. Radiation therapy was not delivered by current standards of dose and technique.
3. Another trial compared androgen deprivation therapy (ADT: an LH-RH agonist or orchiectomy) to ADT plus radiation therapy (65–69 Gy to the prostate by 4-field box technique, including 45 Gy to the whole pelvis, seminal vesicles, and external/internal iliac nodes unless the lymph nodes were known to be histologically negative). This trial (NCIC CTG PR.3/MRC UKPRO7 [NCT00002633]) from the National Cancer Institute of Canada, randomly assigned 1,205 patients with high-risk (PSA >40 ng/mL or PSA >20 ng/mL and Gleason score ≥8), T2 (12%–13% of the patients), T3 (83% of the patients), and T4 (4%–5% of the patients) with clinical or pathologically staged N0, M0 disease.[21,22][Level of evidence: 1iiA]
   • At a median follow-up of 8 years (maximum = 13 years), OS was superior in the ADT-plus-radiation therapy group (hazard ratio [HR]death 0.77; 95% CI, 0.57–0.85, P = .001). OS at 10 years was 55% for the ADT-plus-radiation therapy group versus 49% for the ADT-alone group.
   • Although radiation therapy had the expected bowel and urinary side effects, quality of life (QOL) was the same in each study group by 24 months and beyond.[23]
4. The RTOG performed a prospective randomized trial (RTOG-8531) in patients with T3, N0, or any T, N1, M0 disease who received prostatic and pelvic radiation therapy and then were randomly assigned to receive immediate adjuvant goserelin or observation with administration of goserelin at time of relapse. In patients assigned to receive adjuvant goserelin, the drug was started during the last week of the radiation therapy course and was continued indefinitely or until signs of progression.[24][Level of evidence: 1iiA]
   • The actuarial 10-year OS rate for the entire population of 945 analyzable patients was 49% on the adjuvant arm versus 39% on the observation arm (P = .002). There was also an improved actuarial 10-year local failure rate (23% vs. 38%, P < .001).
5. A similar trial was performed by the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC). Patients with T1, T2 (World Health Organization grade 3), N0–NX or T3, T4, N0 disease were randomly assigned to receive either pelvic/prostate radiation therapy or identical radiation therapy and adjuvant goserelin (with cyproterone acetate for 1 month) starting with radiation therapy and continuing for 3 years. The 401 patients available for analysis were followed for a median of 9.1 years.[10,25][Levels of evidence: 1iiA, 1iiDii]
   • The Kaplan-Meier estimates of OS at 10 years were 58.1% in the adjuvant goserelin arm and 39.8% in the radiation alone arm (P = .0004). Similarly, 10-year DFS (47.7% vs. 22.7%, P < .0001) and local control (94.0% vs. 76.5%, P < .001) favored the adjuvant arm.[10,25]
   • Two smaller studies, with 78 and 91 patients each, have shown similar results.[26,27]
6. The role of adjuvant hormonal therapy in patients with locally advanced disease has been analyzed by the Agency for Health Care Policy and Research (AHCPR; now the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality). Randomized clinical trial evidence comparing radiation therapy with radiation therapy with prolonged androgen suppression (with an LH-RH agonist or orchiectomy) was evaluated in a meta-analysis. Most patients had more advanced disease, but patients with bulky T2b tumors were included in the study.[11][Level of evidence: 1iiA]
   • The meta-analysis found a difference in 5-year OS in favor of radiation therapy plus continued androgen suppression compared with radiation therapy alone (HR, 0.631; 95% CI, 0.479–0.831).[11]
7. Additionally, the RTOG did a study (RTOG-8610) in patients with bulky local disease (T2b, T2c, T3, or T4), with or without nodal involvement below the common iliac chain: 456 men were randomly assigned to receive either radiation therapy alone or radiation therapy with androgen ablation, which was started 8 weeks before radiation therapy and continued for 16 weeks. This trial assessed only short-term hormonal therapy, not long-term therapy, as the studies analyzed by the AHCPR did.[12,28]
   • At 10 years, OS was not statistically significantly different; however, disease-specific mortality (23% vs. 36%) and DFS (11% vs. 3%) favored the combined treatment arm.[12][Level of evidence: 1iiA]
8. A subset analysis of the RTOG-8610 trial and the RTOG-8531 trial that involved 575 patients with T3, N0, M0 disease indicated that long-term hormones compared with short-term hormones resulted in improved biochemical DFS and cause-specific survival.[29]
9. This finding was confirmed by RTOG-9202 (NCT00767286), which reported that radiation therapy plus 28 months of androgen deprivation resulted in longer 10-year disease-specific survival (23% vs. 13%; P < .0001) but not OS (53.9% vs. 51.6%; P = .36).[13]
   • An unplanned post-hoc subgroup analysis found increased OS with longer androgen deprivation (28 months vs. 4 months) (45% vs. 32%; P = .0061) in men with high-grade cancers and Gleason scores of 8 through 10.
10. In a randomized, prospective clinical trial, 18 months of androgen suppression with an LH-RH agonist appears to have provided results that were similar to 36 months with respect to OS and disease-specific survival.[30][Levels of evidence: 1iiA, 1iiB] In the trial, 630 men with stage II to stage IVA cancer (clinical stage T3–T4, or PSA >20 ng/ml, or Gleason score >7) received 70 Gy of radiation in 35 fractions alone plus a total of either 18 or 36 months of goserelin acetate.
    • With a median follow-up of 9.4 years, OS was nearly identical in each study arm (62% at 10 years; HRdeath = 1.02; 95% CI, 0.81–1.29, P = .8), as was prostate cancer–specific survival (HRprostate death = 0.95; 95% CI, 0.58–1.55, P = .8).
    • Global quality of life was nearly identical on both study arms, but sexual activity and interest in sex was moderately better in the 18-month arm.[30][Level of evidence: 1iiC]
11. Likewise, a meta-analysis of seven randomized controlled trials comparing early hormonal treatment (adjuvant or neoadjuvant) with deferred hormonal treatment (LH-RH agonists and/or antiandrogens) in patients with locally advanced prostate cancer, whether treated by prostatectomy, radiation therapy, or watchful waiting or active surveillance/active monitoring, showed improved overall mortality for patients receiving early treatment (relative risk, 0.86; 95% CI, 0.82–0.91).[31][Level of evidence: 1iiA]
12. The duration of neoadjuvant hormonal therapy has been tested in a randomized trial (TROG 96.01 [ACTRN12607000237482]) involving 818 men with locally advanced (T2b, T2c, T3, and T4) nonmetastatic cancer treated with radiation therapy (i.e., 66 Gy in 2 Gy daily fractions to the prostate and seminal vesicles but not including regional lymph nodes). In an open-label design, patients were randomly assigned to radiation therapy alone, 3 months of neoadjuvant androgen deprivation therapy (NADT) (goserelin 3.6 mg subcutaneously each month plus flutamide 250 mg PO tid) for 2 months before and during radiation, or 6 months of NADT for 5 months before and during radiation.[14][Level of evidence: 1iiA]
    • After a median follow-up of 10.6 years, there were no statistically significant differences between the radiation-alone group and the radiation plus 3 months of NADT group.
    • However, the 6-month NADT arm showed better prostate cancer-specific mortality and overall mortality than radiation alone; 10-year all-cause mortality 29.2% versus 42.5% (HR, 0.63; 95% CI, 0.48–0.83, P = .0008).
13. The duration of neoadjuvant hormonal therapy was tested in another trial (RTOG-9910 [NCT00005044]) of 1,489 eligible men with intermediate-risk prostate cancer (T1b–4, Gleason score 2–6, and PSA >10 but ≤100 ng/mL; T1b–4, Gleason score 7, and PSA <20; or T1b–1c, Gleason score 8–10, and PSA <20) and no evidence of metastases. The men were randomly assigned to receive short-course neoadjuvant–androgen suppression (an LH-RH agonist plus bicalutamide or flutamide for 8 weeks before and 8 weeks during radiation therapy) or long-course neoadjuvant–androgen suppression (28 weeks before and 8 weeks during radiation therapy). Both groups received 70.2 Gy radiation in 39 daily fractions to the prostate and 46.8 Gy to the iliac lymph nodes.[32][Levels of evidence: 1iiA and 1iiB]
    • After a median of 9.4 years, 10-year prostate-specific mortality, the primary endpoint, was low in both study arms: 5% versus 4% (HR, 0.81; 95% CI, 0.48–1.39).[32][Level of evidence: 1iiB]
    • No statistically significant differences in overall mortality or in locoregional disease progression were found.[32][Level of evidence: 1iiA]
    • There was also no apparent differential effect of androgen suppression duration among any of the risk-group subsets.

Hormonal manipulations (with or without radiation therapy)

Hormonal manipulations (orchiectomy or LH-RH agonists) may be used in the treatment of stage III prostate cancer.[33][Level of evidence: 1iiA]

Some data suggest that the efficacy of orchiectomy or LH-RH agonists may be enhanced by the addition of abiraterone acetate in men with locally advanced tumors. In the randomized, open-label, STAMPEDE trial (NCT00268476) trial, 1,917 men (about 95% newly diagnosed; about 50% had metastatic disease and about 50% had locally advanced or node-positive disease) were treated with ADT alone or ADT plus abiraterone acetate (1,000 mg PO qd) and prednisolone (5 mg PO qd).[34] Local radiation therapy was mandated after 6 to 9 months for men with node-negative nonmetastatic disease and optional for those with node-positive nonmetastatic disease. Hormone therapy was curtailed at 2 years or until progression. Radiation therapy was planned in about 40% of the study participants.

• With a median follow-up of 40 months, the 3-year OS was 83% in the abiraterone study group compared with 76% in the ADT-only study group (HRdeath, 0.63; 95% CI, 0.52–0.76; P < .001).[34][Level of evidence: 1iiA] Although there was no clear evidence of heterogeneity in relative treatment differences in metastatic disease versus nonmetastatic disease, absolute differences were much smaller in men with nonmetastatic disease and not statistically significant, perhaps because of the short follow-up (HRdeath, 0.75; 95% CI, 0.49–1.18).
• The main additional differences in toxicity associated with abiraterone compared with ADT alone were hypertension (5% vs. 1%), mild increase in blood aminotransferase levels (6% vs. <1%), and respiratory disorders (5% vs. 2%).

Antiandrogen monotherapy has also been evaluated in men with locally advanced prostate cancer as an alternative to castration.

Evidence (nonsteroidal antiandrogen monotherapy vs. surgical or medical castration):

1. A systematic evidence review compared nonsteroidal antiandrogen monotherapy with surgical or medical castration from 11 randomized trials in 3,060 men with locally advanced, metastatic, or recurrent disease after local therapy.[35] Use of nonsteroidal antiandrogens as monotherapy decreased OS and increased the rate of clinical progression and treatment failure.[35][Level of evidence: 1iiA]

Evidence (orchiectomy vs. LH-RH agonist):

1. In a randomized equivalence study involving 480 men with locally advanced (T3 and T4) disease, those who were treated with castration had a median OS of 70 months, whereas those treated with bicalutamide (150 mg qd) had a median OS of 63.5 months (HR,1.05; 95% CI, 0.81–1.36); these results failed to meet the prespecified criteria for equivalence.[36][Level of evidence: 1iiA]

Immediate versus deferred hormonal therapy

In patients who are not candidates for or who are unwilling to undergo radical prostatectomy or radiation therapy, immediate hormonal therapy has been compared with deferred treatment (i.e., watchful waiting or active surveillance/active monitoring with hormonal therapy at progression).

Evidence (immediate vs. deferred hormonal therapy):

1. A randomized trial looked at immediate hormonal treatment (orchiectomy or LH-RH agonist) versus deferred treatment in men with locally advanced or asymptomatic metastatic prostate cancer.[33][Level of evidence: 1iiA]
   • Initial results showed better OS and prostate cancer-specific survival with the immediate treatment. This subsequently lost statistical significance as was recorded in abstract form.[37]
   • The incidence of pathologic fractures, spinal cord compression, and ureteric obstruction were also lower in the immediate treatment arm.
2. In another trial, 197 men with stage III or stage IV prostate cancer were randomly assigned to receive bilateral orchiectomy at diagnosis or at the time of symptomatic progression (or at the time of new metastases that were deemed likely to cause symptoms).[38][Level of evidence: 1iiA]
   • No statistically significant difference in OS was seen over a 12-year period of follow-up.
3. In the EORTC-30891Exit Disclaimertrial (NCT01819285), 985 patients newly diagnosed with prostate cancer, stage T0–4, N0–2, M0, and a median age of 73 years were randomly assigned to receive androgen deprivation, either immediately or on symptomatic disease progression. The study was designed to demonstrate the noninferiority of deferred treatment as compared with immediate treatment in relation to OS.[39][Level of evidence: 1iiA]
   • At a median follow-up of 7.8 years, approximately 50% of the patients in the deferred treatment group had initiated androgen deprivation.
   • The median OS in the immediate treatment group was 7.4 years, and, in the deferred treatment group, it was 6.5 years, corresponding to a mortality HR of 1.25 (95% CI, 1.05–1.48), which failed to meet the criteria for noninferiority.

Continuous versus intermittent hormonal therapy

When used as the primary therapy for patients with stage III or stage IV prostate cancer, androgen suppression with hormonal therapy is usually given continuously until there is disease progression. Some investigators have proposed intermittent androgen suppression as a strategy to attain maximal tumor cytoreduction followed by a period without therapy to allow tumor repopulation by hormone-sensitive cells. Theoretically, this strategy might provide tumor hormone responsiveness for a longer period. An animal model suggested that intermittent androgen deprivation (IAD) could prolong the duration of androgen dependence of hormone-sensitive tumors.[40]

Evidence (continuous vs. intermittent hormonal therapy):

1. A systematic review of 15 randomized trials that compared continuous androgen deprivation versus IAD therapy for patients with advanced or recurrent prostate cancer found no significant difference in OS, which was reported in eight of the trials (HR, 1.02; 95% CI, 0.93–1.11); prostate–cancer-specific survival, reported in five of the trials (HR,1.02; 95% CI, 0.87–1.19); or progression-free survival, reported in four of the trials (HR, 0.94; 95% CI, 0.84–1.05). The meta-analysis fulfilled prespecified criteria for noninferiority of OS (upper bound of 1.15 for the HRdeath, 1.15).[41][Level of evidence: 1iiA] However, of the 15 trials, all but one had an unclear or high risk of bias according to prespecified criteria.
   • There was minimal difference in patient-reported QOL, but most trials found better physical and sexual functioning in patients in the IAD arms.

Radical prostatectomy with or without EBRT

Radical prostatectomy may be used with or without EBRT (in highly selected patients).[42] Because about 40% to 50% of men with clinically organ-confined disease are found to have pathologic extension beyond the prostate capsule or surgical margins, the role of postprostatectomy adjuvant radiation therapy has been studied.

Evidence (radical prostatectomy with or without EBRT):

1. In a randomized trial of 425 men with pathologic T3, N0, M0 disease, postsurgical EBRT (60–64 Gy to the prostatic fossa over 30–32 fractions) was compared with observation.[43,44]
   • After a median follow-up of about 12.5 years, OS was better in the radiation therapy arm; HRdeath, 0.72 (95% CI, 0.55–0.96; P = .023). The 10-year estimated survival rates were 74% in the radiation therapy arm and 66% in the control arm.
   • The 10-year, estimated, metastasis-free survivals were 73% and 65% (P = .016).[44][Level of evidence: 1iiA]
   • Short-term complication rates were substantially higher in the radiation therapy group: overall complications were 23.8% versus 11.9%, rectal complications were 3.3% versus 0%, and urethral stricture was 17.8% versus 9.5%.
   • The role of preoperative (neoadjuvant) hormonal therapy is not established.[45,46] Also, the morphologic changes induced by neoadjuvant androgen ablation may even complicate assessment of surgical margins and capsular involvement.[47]

Watchful waiting or active surveillance/active monitoring

Careful observation without further immediate treatment may be used in the treatment of stage III prostate cancer.[48,49]

Asymptomatic patients of advanced age or with concomitant illness may warrant consideration of careful observation without immediate active treatment.[50-52] Watch and wait, observation, expectant management, and active surveillance/active monitoring are terms indicating a strategy that does not employ immediate therapy with curative intent. (Refer to the Treatment Option Overview for Prostate Cancer section of this summary for more information.)

Treatment of Symptoms

Because many stage III patients have urinary symptoms, control of symptoms is an important consideration in treatment. The following modalities may be used to improve local control of disease and subsequent symptoms:

• Radiation therapy.
• Hormonal manipulation.
• Palliative surgery (transurethral resection of the prostate [TURP]).
• Interstitial implantation combined with EBRT.
• Alternative forms of radiation therapy (under clinical evaluation).
• Ultrasound-guided percutaneous cryosurgery (under clinical evaluation).

1. Radiation therapy.[3-6] EBRT designed to decrease exposure of normal tissues using methods such as computed tomography–based 3-dimensional conformal radiation therapy treatment planning is under clinical evaluation.
2. Hormonal manipulations effectively used as initial therapy for prostate cancer include the following:
   • Orchiectomy.
   • Leuprolide or other LH-RH agonists (e.g., goserelin) in daily or depot preparations. These agents may be associated with tumor flare.
   • Estrogens (diethylstilbestrol [DES] is no longer available in the United States).
   • Nonsteroidal antiandrogens (e.g., flutamide, nilutamide, and bicalutamide) or steroidal antiandrogen (e.g., cyproterone acetate).
   A meta-analysis of randomized trials comparing various hormonal monotherapies in men with stage III or stage IV prostate cancer (predominantly stage IV) came to the following conclusions:[53][Level of evidence: 1iiA]
   • OS at 2 years using any of the LH-RH agonists is similar to treatment with orchiectomy or 3 mg qd of DES (HR, 1.26; 95% CI, 0.92–1.39).
   • Survival rates at 2 years are similar or worse with nonsteroidal antiandrogens compared with orchiectomy (HR, 1.22; 95% CI, 0.99–1.50).
   • Treatment withdrawals, used as a surrogate for adverse effects, occurred less with LH-RH agonists (0%–4%) than with nonsteroidal antiandrogens (4%–10%).
3. Palliative surgery (TURP).
4. Interstitial implantation combined with EBRT is being used in selected T3 patients, but little information is available.[54]
5. Alternative forms of radiation therapy are being employed in clinical trials. A randomized trial from the RTOG reported improved local control and survival with mixed-beam (neutron/photon) radiation therapy compared with standard photon radiation therapy.[55] A subsequent randomized study from the same group compared fast-neutron radiation therapy with standard photon radiation therapy. Local-regional control was improved with neutron treatment, but no difference in OS was seen, although follow-up was shorter in this trial. Fewer complications were seen with the use of a multileaf collimator.[56] Proton-beam radiation therapy is also under investigation.[57]
6. Ultrasound-guided percutaneous cryosurgery is under clinical evaluation. Cryosurgery is a surgical technique under development that involves destruction of prostate cancer cells by intermittent freezing of the prostate with cryoprobes, followed by thawing.[58][Level of evidence: 3iiiC]; [59]; [60][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] Cryosurgery is less well established than standard prostatectomy, and long-term outcomes are not as well established as with prostatectomy or radiation therapy. Serious toxic effects include bladder outlet injury, urinary incontinence, sexual impotence, and rectal injury. The technique of cryosurgery is under development. Impotence is common. The frequency of other side effects and the probability of cancer control at 5 years' follow-up have varied among reporting centers, and series are small compared with surgery and radiation therapy.[59,60]

Current Clinical Trials

Use our advanced clinical trial search to find NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now enrolling patients. The search can be narrowed by location of the trial, type of treatment, name of the drug, and other criteria. General information about clinical trials is also available.

References

1. Prostate. In: Amin MB, Edge SB, Greene FL, et al., eds.: AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. 8th ed. New York, NY: Springer, 2017, pp. 715–26.
2. Paulson DF: Management of prostate malignancy. In: deKernion JB, Paulson DF, eds.: Genitourinary Cancer Management. Philadelphia, Pa: Lea and Febiger, 1987, pp 107-160.
3. Babaian RJ, Zagars GK, Ayala AG: Radiation therapy of stage C prostate cancer: significance of Gleason grade to survival. Semin Urol 8 (4): 225-31, 1990. [PUBMED Abstract]
4. del Regato JA, Trailins AH, Pittman DD: Twenty years follow-up of patients with inoperable cancer of the prostate (stage C) treated by radiotherapy: report of a national cooperative study. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 26 (2): 197-201, 1993. [PUBMED Abstract]
5. Pilepich MV, Johnson RJ, Perez CA, et al.: Prognostic significance of nodal involvement in locally advanced (stage C) carcinoma of prostate--RTOG experience. Urology 30 (6): 535-40, 1987. [PUBMED Abstract]
6. Perez CA, Garcia D, Simpson JR, et al.: Factors influencing outcome of definitive radiotherapy for localized carcinoma of the prostate. Radiother Oncol 16 (1): 1-21, 1989. [PUBMED Abstract]
7. Freeman JA, Lieskovsky G, Cook DW, et al.: Radical retropubic prostatectomy and postoperative adjuvant radiation for pathological stage C (PcN0) prostate cancer from 1976 to 1989: intermediate findings. J Urol 149 (5): 1029-34, 1993. [PUBMED Abstract]
8. Kumar S, Shelley M, Harrison C, et al.: Neo-adjuvant and adjuvant hormone therapy for localised and locally advanced prostate cancer. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (4): CD006019, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
9. D'Amico AV, Chen MH, Renshaw AA, et al.: Androgen suppression and radiation vs radiation alone for prostate cancer: a randomized trial. JAMA 299 (3): 289-95, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
10. Bolla M, Van Tienhoven G, Warde P, et al.: External irradiation with or without long-term androgen suppression for prostate cancer with high metastatic risk: 10-year results of an EORTC randomised study. Lancet Oncol 11 (11): 1066-73, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
11. Seidenfeld J, Samson DJ, Aronson N, et al.: Relative effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of methods of androgen suppression in the treatment of advanced prostate cancer. Evid Rep Technol Assess (Summ) (4): i-x, 1-246, I1-36, passim, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
12. Roach M, Bae K, Speight J, et al.: Short-term neoadjuvant androgen deprivation therapy and external-beam radiotherapy for locally advanced prostate cancer: long-term results of RTOG 8610. J Clin Oncol 26 (4): 585-91, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
13. Horwitz EM, Bae K, Hanks GE, et al.: Ten-year follow-up of radiation therapy oncology group protocol 92-02: a phase III trial of the duration of elective androgen deprivation in locally advanced prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 26 (15): 2497-504, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
14. Denham JW, Steigler A, Lamb DS, et al.: Short-term neoadjuvant androgen deprivation and radiotherapy for locally advanced prostate cancer: 10-year data from the TROG 96.01 randomised trial. Lancet Oncol 12 (5): 451-9, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
15. Pilepich MV, Caplan R, Byhardt RW, et al.: Phase III trial of androgen suppression using goserelin in unfavorable-prognosis carcinoma of the prostate treated with definitive radiotherapy: report of Radiation Therapy Oncology Group Protocol 85-31. J Clin Oncol 15 (3): 1013-21, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
16. Bolla M, Gonzalez D, Warde P, et al.: Improved survival in patients with locally advanced prostate cancer treated with radiotherapy and goserelin. N Engl J Med 337 (5): 295-300, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
17. Seymore CH, el-Mahdi AM, Schellhammer PF: The effect of prior transurethral resection of the prostate on post radiation urethral strictures and bladder neck contractures. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 12 (9): 1597-600, 1986. [PUBMED Abstract]
18. Roach M, DeSilvio M, Lawton C, et al.: Phase III trial comparing whole-pelvic versus prostate-only radiotherapy and neoadjuvant versus adjuvant combined androgen suppression: Radiation Therapy Oncology Group 9413. J Clin Oncol 21 (10): 1904-11, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
19. Pollack A: A call for more with a desire for less: pelvic radiotherapy with androgen deprivation in the treatment of prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 21 (10): 1899-901, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
20. Widmark A, Klepp O, Solberg A, et al.: Endocrine treatment, with or without radiotherapy, in locally advanced prostate cancer (SPCG-7/SFUO-3): an open randomised phase III trial. Lancet 373 (9660): 301-8, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
21. Warde P, Mason M, Ding K, et al.: Combined androgen deprivation therapy and radiation therapy for locally advanced prostate cancer: a randomised, phase 3 trial. Lancet 378 (9809): 2104-11, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
22. Mason MD, Parulekar WR, Sydes MR, et al.: Final Report of the Intergroup Randomized Study of Combined Androgen-Deprivation Therapy Plus Radiotherapy Versus Androgen-Deprivation Therapy Alone in Locally Advanced Prostate Cancer. J Clin Oncol 33 (19): 2143-50, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
23. Brundage M, Sydes MR, Parulekar WR, et al.: Impact of Radiotherapy When Added to Androgen-Deprivation Therapy for Locally Advanced Prostate Cancer: Long-Term Quality-of-Life Outcomes From the NCIC CTG PR3/MRC PR07 Randomized Trial. J Clin Oncol 33 (19): 2151-7, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
24. Pilepich MV, Winter K, Lawton CA, et al.: Androgen suppression adjuvant to definitive radiotherapy in prostate carcinoma--long-term results of phase III RTOG 85-31. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 61 (5): 1285-90, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
25. Bolla M, Collette L, Blank L, et al.: Long-term results with immediate androgen suppression and external irradiation in patients with locally advanced prostate cancer (an EORTC study): a phase III randomised trial. Lancet 360 (9327): 103-6, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
26. Zagars GK, Johnson DE, von Eschenbach AC, et al.: Adjuvant estrogen following radiation therapy for stage C adenocarcinoma of the prostate: long-term results of a prospective randomized study. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 14 (6): 1085-91, 1988. [PUBMED Abstract]
27. Granfors T, Modig H, Damber JE, et al.: Combined orchiectomy and external radiotherapy versus radiotherapy alone for nonmetastatic prostate cancer with or without pelvic lymph node involvement: a prospective randomized study. J Urol 159 (6): 2030-4, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
28. Pilepich MV, Winter K, John MJ, et al.: Phase III radiation therapy oncology group (RTOG) trial 86-10 of androgen deprivation adjuvant to definitive radiotherapy in locally advanced carcinoma of the prostate. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 50 (5): 1243-52, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
29. Horwitz EM, Winter K, Hanks GE, et al.: Subset analysis of RTOG 85-31 and 86-10 indicates an advantage for long-term vs. short-term adjuvant hormones for patients with locally advanced nonmetastatic prostate cancer treated with radiation therapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 49 (4): 947-56, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
30. Nabid A, Carrier N, Martin AG, et al.: Duration of Androgen Deprivation Therapy in High-risk Prostate Cancer: A Randomized Phase III Trial. Eur Urol 74 (4): 432-441, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
31. Boustead G, Edwards SJ: Systematic review of early vs deferred hormonal treatment of locally advanced prostate cancer: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. BJU Int 99 (6): 1383-9, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
32. Pisansky TM, Hunt D, Gomella LG, et al.: Duration of androgen suppression before radiotherapy for localized prostate cancer: radiation therapy oncology group randomized clinical trial 9910. J Clin Oncol 33 (4): 332-9, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
33. Immediate versus deferred treatment for advanced prostatic cancer: initial results of the Medical Research Council Trial. The Medical Research Council Prostate Cancer Working Party Investigators Group. Br J Urol 79 (2): 235-46, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
34. James ND, de Bono JS, Spears MR, et al.: Abiraterone for Prostate Cancer Not Previously Treated with Hormone Therapy. N Engl J Med 377 (4): 338-351, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
35. Kunath F, Grobe HR, Rücker G, et al.: Non-steroidal antiandrogen monotherapy compared with luteinising hormone-releasing hormone agonists or surgical castration monotherapy for advanced prostate cancer. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (6): CD009266, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
36. Iversen P, Tyrrell CJ, Kaisary AV, et al.: Bicalutamide monotherapy compared with castration in patients with nonmetastatic locally advanced prostate cancer: 6.3 years of followup. J Urol 164 (5): 1579-82, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
37. Kirk D: Immediate vs. deferred hormone treatment for prostate cancer: how safe is androgen deprivation? [Abstract] BJU Int 86 (Suppl 3): 218-58, 2000.
38. Studer UE, Hauri D, Hanselmann S, et al.: Immediate versus deferred hormonal treatment for patients with prostate cancer who are not suitable for curative local treatment: results of the randomized trial SAKK 08/88. J Clin Oncol 22 (20): 4109-18, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
39. Studer UE, Whelan P, Albrecht W, et al.: Immediate or deferred androgen deprivation for patients with prostate cancer not suitable for local treatment with curative intent: European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC) Trial 30891. J Clin Oncol 24 (12): 1868-76, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
40. Tombal B: Intermittent androgen deprivation therapy: conventional wisdom versus evidence. Eur Urol 55 (6): 1278-80, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
41. Magnan S, Zarychanski R, Pilote L, et al.: Intermittent vs Continuous Androgen Deprivation Therapy for Prostate Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Oncol 1 (9): 1261-9, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
42. Walsh PC, Jewett HJ: Radical surgery for prostatic cancer. Cancer 45 (7 Suppl): 1906-11, 1980. [PUBMED Abstract]
43. Thompson IM, Tangen CM, Paradelo J, et al.: Adjuvant radiotherapy for pathologically advanced prostate cancer: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 296 (19): 2329-35, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
44. Thompson IM, Tangen CM, Paradelo J, et al.: Adjuvant radiotherapy for pathological T3N0M0 prostate cancer significantly reduces risk of metastases and improves survival: long-term followup of a randomized clinical trial. J Urol 181 (3): 956-62, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
45. Witjes WP, Schulman CC, Debruyne FM: Preliminary results of a prospective randomized study comparing radical prostatectomy versus radical prostatectomy associated with neoadjuvant hormonal combination therapy in T2-3 N0 M0 prostatic carcinoma. The European Study Group on Neoadjuvant Treatment of Prostate Cancer. Urology 49 (3A Suppl): 65-9, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
46. Fair WR, Cookson MS, Stroumbakis N, et al.: The indications, rationale, and results of neoadjuvant androgen deprivation in the treatment of prostatic cancer: Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center results. Urology 49 (3A Suppl): 46-55, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
47. Bazinet M, Zheng W, Bégin LR, et al.: Morphologic changes induced by neoadjuvant androgen ablation may result in underdetection of positive surgical margins and capsular involvement by prostatic adenocarcinoma. Urology 49 (5): 721-5, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
48. Adolfsson J: Deferred treatment of low grade stage T3 prostate cancer without distant metastases. J Urol 149 (2): 326-8; discussion 328-9, 1993. [PUBMED Abstract]
49. Stattin P, Holmberg E, Johansson JE, et al.: Outcomes in localized prostate cancer: National Prostate Cancer Register of Sweden follow-up study. J Natl Cancer Inst 102 (13): 950-8, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
50. Chodak GW, Thisted RA, Gerber GS, et al.: Results of conservative management of clinically localized prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 330 (4): 242-8, 1994. [PUBMED Abstract]
51. Whitmore WF: Expectant management of clinically localized prostatic cancer. Semin Oncol 21 (5): 560-8, 1994. [PUBMED Abstract]
52. Shappley WV, Kenfield SA, Kasperzyk JL, et al.: Prospective study of determinants and outcomes of deferred treatment or watchful waiting among men with prostate cancer in a nationwide cohort. J Clin Oncol 27 (30): 4980-5, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
53. Seidenfeld J, Samson DJ, Hasselblad V, et al.: Single-therapy androgen suppression in men with advanced prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med 132 (7): 566-77, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
54. Blasko JC, Grimm PD, Ragde H: Brachytherapy and Organ Preservation in the Management of Carcinoma of the Prostate. Semin Radiat Oncol 3 (4): 240-249, 1993. [PUBMED Abstract]
55. Laramore GE, Krall JM, Thomas FJ, et al.: Fast neutron radiotherapy for locally advanced prostate cancer. Final report of Radiation Therapy Oncology Group randomized clinical trial. Am J Clin Oncol 16 (2): 164-7, 1993. [PUBMED Abstract]
56. Russell KJ, Caplan RJ, Laramore GE, et al.: Photon versus fast neutron external beam radiotherapy in the treatment of locally advanced prostate cancer: results of a randomized prospective trial. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 28 (1): 47-54, 1994. [PUBMED Abstract]
57. Shipley WU, Verhey LJ, Munzenrider JE, et al.: Advanced prostate cancer: the results of a randomized comparative trial of high dose irradiation boosting with conformal protons compared with conventional dose irradiation using photons alone. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 32 (1): 3-12, 1995. [PUBMED Abstract]
58. Robinson JW, Saliken JC, Donnelly BJ, et al.: Quality-of-life outcomes for men treated with cryosurgery for localized prostate carcinoma. Cancer 86 (9): 1793-801, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
59. Donnelly BJ, Saliken JC, Ernst DS, et al.: Prospective trial of cryosurgical ablation of the prostate: five-year results. Urology 60 (4): 645-9, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
60. Aus G, Pileblad E, Hugosson J: Cryosurgical ablation of the prostate: 5-year follow-up of a prospective study. Eur Urol 42 (2): 133-8, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]