Syphilis is a systemic disease caused by Treponema pallidum. The disease has been divided into stages based on clinical findings, helping to guide treatment and follow-up. Persons who have syphilis might seek treatment for signs or symptoms of primary syphilis infection (i.e., ulcers or chancre at the infection site), secondary syphilis (i.e., manifestations that include, but are not limited to, skin rash, mucocutaneous lesions, and lymphadenopathy), or tertiary syphilis (i.e., cardiac, gummatous lesions, tabes dorsalis, and general paresis). Latent infections (i.e., those lacking clinical manifestations) are detected by serologic testing. Latent syphilis acquired within the preceding year is referred to as early latent syphilis; all other cases of latent syphilis are late latent syphilis or syphilis of unknown duration. T. pallidum can infect the central nervous system and result in neurosyphilis, which can occur at any stage of syphilis. Early neurologic clinical manifestations (i.e., cranial nerve dysfunction, meningitis, stroke, acute altered mental status, and auditory or ophthalmic abnormalities) are usually present within the first few months or years of infection. Late neurologic manifestations (i.e., tabes dorsalis and general paresis) occur 10–30 years after infection.
Diagnostic Considerations
Darkfield examinations and tests to detect T. pallidum directly from lesion exudate or tissue are the definitive methods for diagnosing early syphilis (395). Although no T. pallidum detection tests are commercially available, some laboratories provide locally developed and validated PCR tests for the detection of T. pallidum DNA. A presumptive diagnosis of syphilis requires use of two tests: a nontreponemal test (i.e., Venereal Disease Research Laboratory [VDRL] or Rapid Plasma Reagin [RPR]) and a treponemal test (i.e., fluorescent treponemal antibody absorbed [FTA-ABS] tests, the T. pallidum passive particle agglutination [TP-PA] assay, various enzyme immunoassays [EIAs], chemiluminescence immunoassays, immunoblots, or rapid treponemal assays). Although many treponemal-based tests are commercially available, only a few are approved for use in the United States. Use of only one type of serologic test is insufficient for diagnosis and can result in false-negative results in persons tested during primary syphilis and false-positive results in persons without syphilis. False-positive nontreponemal test results can be associated with various medical conditions and factors unrelated to syphilis, including other infections (e.g., HIV), autoimmune conditions, immunizations, pregnancy, injection-drug use, and older age (395,396). Therefore, persons with a reactive nontreponemal test should always receive a treponemal test to confirm the diagnosis of syphilis.
Nontreponemal test antibody titers might correlate with disease activity and are used to follow treatment response. Results should be reported quantitatively. A fourfold change in titer, equivalent to a change of two dilutions (e.g., from 1:16 to 1:4 or from 1:8 to 1:32), is considered necessary to demonstrate a clinically significant difference between two nontreponemal test results obtained using the same serologic test. Sequential serologic tests in individual patients should be performed using the same testing method (VDRL or RPR), preferably by the same laboratory. The VDRL and RPR are equally valid assays, but quantitative results from the two tests cannot be compared directly because RPR titers frequently are slightly higher than VDRL titers. Nontreponemal test titers usually decline after treatment and might become nonreactive with time; however, in some persons, nontreponemal antibodies can persist for a long period of time, a response referred to as the “serofast reaction.” Most patients who have reactive treponemal tests will have reactive tests for the remainder of their lives, regardless of treatment or disease activity. However, 15%–25% of patients treated during the primary stage revert to being serologically nonreactive after 2–3 years (397). Treponemal antibody titers do not predict treatment response and therefore should not be used for this purpose.
Some clinical laboratories are screening samples using treponemal tests, typically by EIA or chemiluminescence immunoassays (398,399). This reverse screening algorithm for syphilis testing can identify persons previously treated for syphilis, those with untreated or incompletely treated syphilis, and persons with false-positive results that can occur with a low likelihood of infection. Persons with a positive treponemal screening test should have a standard nontreponemal test with titer performed reflexively by the laboratory to guide patient management decisions. If the nontreponemal test is negative, the laboratory should perform a different treponemal test (preferably one based on different antigens than the original test) to confirm the results of the initial test. If a second treponemal test is positive, persons with a history of previous treatment will require no further management unless sexual history suggests likelihood of re-exposure. In this instance, a repeat nontreponemal test in 2–4 weeks is recommended to evaluate for early infection. Those without a history of treatment for syphilis should be offered treatment. Unless history or results of a physical examination suggest a recent infection, previously untreated persons should be treated for late latent syphilis. If the second treponemal test is negative and the epidemiologic risk and clinical probability for syphilis are low, further evaluation or treatment is not indicated. Two studies demonstrate that high quantitative index values from treponemal EIA/CIA tests correlate with TPPA positivity; however, the range of optical density values varies among different treponemal immunoassays, and the clinical significance of these findings warrant further investigation (400,401).
For most persons with HIV infection, serologic tests are accurate and reliable for diagnosing syphilis and following a patient’s response to treatment. However, atypical nontreponemal serologic test results (i.e., unusually high, unusually low, or fluctuating titers) might occur regardless of HIV-infection status. When serologic tests do not correspond with clinical findings suggestive of early syphilis, presumptive treatment is recommended for persons with risk factors for syphilis, and use of other tests (e.g., biopsy and PCR) should be considered.
Further testing is warranted for persons with clinical signs of neurosyphilis (e.g., cranial nerve dysfunction, auditory or ophthalmic abnormalities, meningitis, stroke, acute or chronic altered mental status, and loss of vibration sense). Laboratory testing is helpful in supporting the diagnosis of neurosyphilis; however, no single test can be used to diagnose neurosyphilis in all instances. The diagnosis of neurosyphilis depends on a combination of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) tests (CSF cell count or protein and a reactive CSF-VDRL) in the presence of reactive serologic test results and neurologic signs and symptoms. CSF laboratory abnormalities are common in persons with early syphilis and are of unknown significance in the absence of neurologic signs or symptoms (402). CSF-VDRL is highly specific but insensitive. In a person with neurologic signs or symptoms, a reactive CSF-VDRL (in the absence of blood contamination) is considered diagnostic of neurosyphilis. When CSF-VDRL is negative despite the presence of clinical signs of neurosyphilis, reactive serologic test results, and abnormal CSF cell count and/or protein, neurosyphilis should be considered. In this instance, additional evaluation using FTA-ABS testing on CSF may be warranted. The CSF FTA-ABS test is less specific for neurosyphilis than the CSF-VDRL but is highly sensitive. Neurosyphilis is highly unlikely with a negative CSF FTA-ABS test, especially among persons with nonspecific neurologic signs and symptoms (403).
Among persons with HIV infection, CSF leukocyte count usually is elevated (>5 white blood cell count [WBC]/mm3). Using a higher cutoff (>20 WBC/ mm3) might improve the specificity of neurosyphilis diagnosis (404).
Treatment
Penicillin G, administered parenterally, is the preferred drug for treating persons in all stages of syphilis. The preparation used (i.e., benzathine, aqueous procaine, or aqueous crystalline), dosage, and length of treatment depend on the stage and clinical manifestations of the disease. Treatment for late latent syphilis and tertiary syphilis require a longer duration of therapy, because organisms theoretically might be dividing more slowly (the validity of this rationale has not been assessed). Longer treatment duration is required for persons with latent syphilis of unknown duration to ensure that those who did not acquire syphilis within the preceding year are adequately treated.
Selection of the appropriate penicillin preparation is important, because T. pallidum can reside in sequestered sites (e.g., the CNS and aqueous humor) that are poorly accessed by some forms of penicillin. Combinations of benzathine penicillin, procaine penicillin, and oral penicillin preparations are not considered appropriate for the treatment of syphilis. Reports have indicated that practitioners have inadvertently prescribed combination benzathine-procaine penicillin (Bicillin C-R) instead of the standard benzathine penicillin product (Bicillin L-A) widely used in the United States. Practitioners, pharmacists, and purchasing agents should be aware of the similar names of these two products to avoid using the inappropriate combination therapy agent for treating syphilis (405).
The effectiveness of penicillin for the treatment of syphilis was well established through clinical experience even before the value of randomized controlled clinical trials was recognized. Therefore, nearly all recommendations for the treatment of syphilis are based not only on clinical trials and observational studies, but many decades of clinical experience.
Special Considerations
Pregnancy
Parenteral penicillin G is the only therapy with documented efficacy for syphilis during pregnancy. Pregnant women with syphilis in any stage who report penicillin allergy should be desensitized and treated with penicillin (see Management of Persons Who Have a History of Penicillin Allergy).
Jarisch-Herxheimer Reaction
The Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction is an acute febrile reaction frequently accompanied by headache, myalgia, fever, and other symptoms that can occur within the first 24 hours after the initiation of any therapy for syphilis. Patients should be informed about this possible adverse reaction and how to manage it if it occurs. The Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction occurs most frequently among persons who have early syphilis, presumably because bacterial burdens are higher during these stages. Antipyretics can be used to manage symptoms, but they have not been proven to prevent this reaction. The Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction might induce early labor or cause fetal distress in pregnant women, but this should not prevent or delay therapy (see Syphilis During Pregnancy).
Management of Sex Partners
Sexual transmission of T. pallidum is thought to occur only when mucocutaneous syphilitic lesions are present. Such manifestations are uncommon after the first year of infection. Persons exposed sexually to a person who has primary, secondary, or early latent syphilis should be evaluated clinically and serologically and treated according to the following recommendations:
- Persons who have had sexual contact with a person who receives a diagnosis of primary, secondary, or early latent syphilis within 90 days preceding the diagnosis should be treated presumptively for early syphilis, even if serologic test results are negative.
- Persons who have had sexual contact with a person who receives a diagnosis of primary, secondary, or early latent syphilis >90 days before the diagnosis should be treated presumptively for early syphilis if serologic test results are not immediately available and the opportunity for follow-up is uncertain. If serologic tests are negative, no treatment is needed. If serologic tests are positive, treatment should be based on clinical and serologic evaluation and stage of syphilis.
- In some areas or populations with high rates of syphilis, health departments recommend notification and presumptive treatment of sex partners of persons with late latent syphilis who have high nontreponemal serologic test titers (i.e., >1:32), because high titers might be indicative of early syphilis. These partners should be managed as if the index case had early syphilis.
- Long-term sex partners of persons who have late latent syphilis should be evaluated clinically and serologically for syphilis and treated on the basis of the evaluation’s findings.
- The following sex partners of persons with syphilis are considered at risk for infection and should be confidentially notified of the exposure and need for evaluation: partners who have had sexual contact within 1) 3 months plus the duration of symptoms for persons who receive a diagnosis of primary syphilis, 2) 6 months plus duration of symptoms for those with secondary syphilis, and 3) 1 year for persons with early latent syphilis.
Primary and Secondary Syphilis
Treatment
Parenteral penicillin G has been used effectively to achieve clinical resolution (i.e., the healing of lesions and prevention of sexual transmission) and to prevent late sequelae. However, no comparative trials have been conducted to guide the selection of an optimal penicillin regimen. Substantially fewer data are available for nonpenicillin regimens.
Available data demonstrate that use of additional doses of benzathine penicillin G, amoxicillin, or other antibiotics do not enhance efficacy when used to treat primary and secondary syphilis, regardless of HIV status (406,407).
Infants and children aged >1 month who receive a diagnosis of syphilis should have birth and maternal medical records reviewed to assess whether they have congenital or acquired syphilis (see Congenital Syphilis). Infants and children aged ≥1 month with primary and secondary syphilis should be managed by a pediatric infectious-disease specialist and evaluated for sexual abuse (e.g., through consultation with child-protection services) (see Sexual Assault or Abuse of Children).
Other Management Considerations
All persons who have primary and secondary syphilis should be tested for HIV infection. In geographic areas in which the prevalence of HIV is high, persons who have primary or secondary syphilis should be retested for acute HIV in 3 months if the first HIV test result was negative.
Persons who have syphilis and symptoms or signs suggesting neurologic disease (e.g., cranial nerve dysfunction, meningitis, stroke, and hearing loss) or ophthalmic disease (e.g., uveitis, iritis, neuroretinitis, and optic neuritis) should have an evaluation that includes CSF analysis, ocular slit-lamp ophthalmologic examination, and otologic examination. Treatment should be guided by the results of this evaluation.
Invasion of CSF by T. pallidum accompanied by CSF laboratory abnormalities is common among adults who have primary or secondary syphilis (402). In the absence of clinical neurologic findings, no evidence supports variation from the recommended treatment regimen for primary and secondary syphilis. Symptomatic neurosyphilis develops in only a limited number of persons after treatment with the penicillin regimens recommended for primary and secondary syphilis. Therefore, unless clinical signs or symptoms of neurologic or ophthalmic involvement are present, routine CSF analysis is not recommended for persons who have primary or secondary syphilis.
Follow-Up
Clinical and serologic evaluation should be performed at 6 and 12 months after treatment; more frequent evaluation might be prudent if follow-up is uncertain or if repeat infection is a concern. Serologic response (i.e., titer) should be compared with the titer at the time of treatment. However, assessing serologic response to treatment can be difficult, and definitive criteria for cure or failure have not been well established. In addition, nontreponemal test titers might decline more slowly for persons previously treated for syphilis (408,409).
Persons who have signs or symptoms that persist or recur and those with at least a fourfold increase in nontreponemal test titer persisting for >2 weeks likely experienced treatment failure or were re-infected. These persons should be retreated and reevaluated for HIV infection. Because treatment failure usually cannot be reliably distinguished from reinfection with T. pallidum, a CSF analysis also should be performed; treatment should be guided by CSF findings.
Failure of nontreponemal test titers to decline fourfold within 6–12 months after therapy for primary or secondary syphilis might be indicative of treatment failure. However, clinical trial data have demonstrated that 15%–20% of persons with primary and secondary syphilis treated with the recommended therapy will not achieve the fourfold decline in nontreponemal titer used to define response at 1 year after treatment (406,409). Serologic response to treatment appears to be associated with several factors, including the person’s stage of syphilis (earlier stages are more likely to decline fourfold and become negative) and initial nontreponemal antibody titers (lower titers are less likely to decline fourfold than higher titers) (409). Optimal management of persons who have less than a fourfold decline in titers after treatment of syphilis is unclear. At a minimum, these persons should receive additional clinical and serologic follow-up and be evaluated for HIV infection. If additional follow-up cannot be ensured, retreatment is recommended. Because treatment failure might be the result of unrecognized CNS infection, CSF examination can be considered in such situations.
For retreatment, weekly injections of benzathine penicillin G 2.4 million units IM for 3 weeks is recommended, unless CSF examination indicates that neurosyphilis is present (see Neurosyphilis). Serologic titers might not decline despite a negative CSF examination and a repeated course of therapy (410). In these circumstances, although the need for additional therapy or repeated CSF examinations is unclear, it is not generally recommended.
Management of Sex Partners
Special Considerations
Penicillin Allergy
Data to support use of alternatives to penicillin in the treatment of primary and secondary syphilis are limited. However, several therapies might be effective in nonpregnant, penicillin-allergic persons who have primary or secondary syphilis. Regimens of doxycycline 100 mg orally twice daily for 14 days (411,412) and tetracycline (500 mg four times daily for 14 days) have been used for many years. Compliance is likely to be better with doxycycline than tetracycline, because tetracycline can cause gastrointestinal side effects and requires more frequent dosing. Although limited clinical studies, along with biologic and pharmacologic evidence, suggest that ceftriaxone (1–2 g daily either IM or IV for 10–14 days) is effective for treating primary and secondary syphilis, the optimal dose and duration of ceftriaxone therapy have not been defined (413). Azithromycin as a single 2-g oral dose has been effective for treating primary and secondary syphilis in some populations (414-416). However, T. pallidum chromosomal mutations associated with azithromycin and other macrolide resistance and treatment failures have been documented in multiple geographical areas in the United States (417-419). Accordingly, azithromycin should not be used as first-line treatment for syphilis and should be used with caution only when treatment with penicillin or doxycycline is not feasible. Azithromycin should not be used in MSM, persons with HIV, or pregnant women. Careful clinical and serologic follow-up of persons receiving any alternative therapies is essential.
Persons with a penicillin allergy whose compliance with therapy or follow-up cannot be ensured should be desensitized and treated with benzathine penicillin. Skin testing for penicillin allergy might be useful in some circumstances in which the reagents and expertise are available to perform the test adequately (see Management of Persons Who Have a History of Penicillin Allergy).
Pregnancy
Pregnant women with primary or secondary syphilis who are allergic to penicillin should be desensitized and treated with penicillin. For more information, see Management of Persons Who Have a History of Penicillin Allergy and Syphilis During Pregnancy.
HIV Infection
Persons with HIV infection who have primary or secondary syphilis should be treated as those without HIV infection. For more information on treatment and management, see Syphilis in Persons with HIV infection.
Latent Syphilis
Latent syphilis is defined as syphilis characterized by seroreactivity without other evidence of primary, secondary, or tertiary disease. Persons who have latent syphilis and who acquired syphilis during the preceding year are classified as having early latent syphilis, a subset of latent syphilis. Persons can receive a diagnosis of early latent syphilis if, during the year preceding the diagnosis, they had 1) a documented seroconversion or a sustained (>2 week) fourfold or greater increase in nontreponemal test titers; 2) unequivocal symptoms of primary or secondary syphilis; or 3) a sex partner documented to have primary, secondary, or early latent syphilis. In addition, for persons with reactive nontreponemal and treponemal tests whose only possible exposure occurred during the previous 12 months, early latent syphilis can be assumed. In the absence of these conditions, an asymptomatic person should be considered to have latent syphilis. Nontreponemal serologic titers usually are higher early in the course of syphilis infection. However, early latent syphilis cannot be reliably diagnosed solely on the basis of nontreponemal titers. All persons with latent syphilis should have careful examination of all accessible mucosal surfaces (i.e., the oral cavity, perianal area, perineum and vagina in women, and underneath the foreskin in uncircumcised men) to evaluate for mucosal lesions.
Treatment
Because latent syphilis is not transmitted sexually, the objective of treating persons in this stage of disease is to prevent complications and transmission from a pregnant woman to her fetus. Although clinical experience supports the effectiveness of penicillin in achieving this goal, limited evidence is available to guide choice of specific regimens or duration.
Infants and children aged ≥1 month diagnosed with latent syphilis should be managed by a pediatric infectious-disease specialist and receive a CSF examination. In addition, birth and maternal medical records should be reviewed to assess whether these infants and children have congenital or acquired syphilis. For those with congenital syphilis, treatment should be undertaken as described in the congenital syphilis section in this document. Those with acquired latent syphilis should be evaluated for sexual abuse (e.g., through consultation with child protection services) (see Sexual Assault or Abuse of Children). These regimens are for penicillin nonallergic children who have acquired syphilis and who have normal CSF examination results.
Other Management Considerations
All persons who have latent syphilis should be tested for HIV infection. Persons who receive a diagnosis of latent syphilis and have neurologic signs and symptoms (e.g., cognitive dysfunction, motor or sensory deficits, ophthalmic or auditory symptoms, cranial nerve palsies, and symptoms or signs of meningitis or stroke) should be evaluated for neurosyphilis (see Neurosyphilis).
If a person misses a dose of penicillin in a course of weekly therapy for latent syphilis, the appropriate course of action is unclear. Clinical experience suggests that an interval of 10–14 days between doses of benzathine penicillin for latent syphilis might be acceptable before restarting the sequence of injections (i.e., if dose 1 is given on day 0, dose 2 is administered between days 10 and 14). Pharmacologic considerations suggest that an interval of 7–9 days between doses, if feasible, might be more optimal (420-422). Missed doses are not acceptable for pregnant women receiving therapy for latent syphilis (423). Pregnant women who miss any dose of therapy must repeat the full course of therapy.
Follow-Up
Quantitative nontreponemal serologic tests should be repeated at 6, 12, and 24 months. A CSF examination should be performed if 1) a sustained (>2 weeks) fourfold increase or greater in titer is observed, 2) an initially high titer (≥1:32) fails to decline at least fourfold within 12–24 months of therapy, or 3) signs or symptoms attributable to syphilis develop. In such circumstances, patients with CSF abnormalities should be treated for neurosyphilis. If the CSF examination is negative, retreatment for latent syphilis should be administered. Serologic titers might fail to decline despite a negative CSF examination and a repeated course of therapy, especially if the initial nontreponemal titer is low (<1:8); in these circumstances, the need for additional therapy or repeated CSF examinations is unclear but is generally not recommended. Serologic and clinical monitoring should be offered along with a reevaluation for HIV infection.
Management of Sex Partners
Special Considerations
Penicillin Allergy
The effectiveness of alternatives to penicillin in the treatment of latent syphilis has not been well documented. Nonpregnant patients allergic to penicillin who have clearly defined early latent syphilis should respond to antibiotics recommended as alternatives to penicillin for the treatment of primary and secondary syphilis (see Primary and Secondary Syphilis, Treatment). The only acceptable alternatives for the treatment of latent syphilis are doxycycline (100 mg orally twice daily) or tetracycline (500 mg orally four times daily), each for 28 days. The efficacy of these alternative regimens in persons with HIV infection has not been well studied. These therapies should be used only in conjunction with close serologic and clinical follow-up, especially in persons with HIV infection. On the basis of biologic plausibility and pharmacologic properties, ceftriaxone might be effective for treating latent syphilis. However, the optimal dose and duration of ceftriaxone therapy have not been defined; treatment decisions should be discussed in consultation with a specialist. Persons with a penicillin allergy whose compliance with therapy or follow-up cannot be ensured should be desensitized and treated with benzathine penicillin. Skin testing for penicillin allergy might be useful in some circumstances in which the reagents and expertise are available to perform the test adequately (see Management of Persons Who Have a History of Penicillin Allergy).
Pregnancy
Pregnant women who are allergic to penicillin should be desensitized and treated with penicillin. For more information, see Management of Persons Who Have a History of Penicillin Allergy and Syphilis During Pregnancy.
HIV Infection
Persons with HIV infection with latent syphilis should be treated as persons who do not have HIV infection. For more information on treatment and management of latent syphilis, see Syphilis in Persons with HIV Infection.
Tertiary Syphilis
Tertiary syphilis refers to gummas and cardiovascular syphilis but not to neurosyphilis. Guidelines for all forms of neurosyphilis (e.g., early or late neurosyphilis) are discussed elsewhere in these recommendations (see Neurosyphilis). Persons who are not allergic to penicillin and have no evidence of neurosyphilis should be treated with the following regimen.
Other Management Considerations
All persons who have tertiary syphilis should be tested for HIV infection and should receive a CSF examination before therapy is initiated. Persons with CSF abnormalities should be treated with a neurosyphilis regimen. Some providers treat all persons who have cardiovascular syphilis with a neurosyphilis regimen. These persons should be managed in consultation with an infectious-disease specialist. Limited information is available concerning clinical response and follow-up of persons who have tertiary syphilis.
Management of Sex Partners
Special Considerations
Penicillin Allergy
Providers should ask patients about known allergies to penicillin. Any person allergic to penicillin should be treated in consultation with an infectious-disease specialist.
Pregnancy
Pregnant women who are allergic to penicillin should be desensitized and treated with penicillin. For more information, see Management of Persons Who Have a History of Penicillin Allergy and Syphilis During Pregnancy.
HIV Infection
Persons with HIV infection who have tertiary syphilis should be treated as described for persons without HIV infection. For more information on the management of tertiary syphilis in persons with HIV infection, see Syphilis in Persons with HIV Infection.
Neurosyphilis
Treatment
CNS involvement can occur during any stage of syphilis, and CSF laboratory abnormalities are common in persons with early syphilis, even in the absence of clinical neurologic findings. No evidence exists to support variation from recommended treatment for syphilis at any stage for persons without clinical neurologic findings, with the exception of tertiary syphilis. If clinical evidence of neurologic involvement is observed (e.g., cognitive dysfunction, motor or sensory deficits, ophthalmic or auditory symptoms, cranial nerve palsies, and symptoms or signs of meningitis or stroke), a CSF examination should be performed.
Syphilitic uveitis or other ocular manifestations (e.g., neuroretinitis and optic neuritis) can be associated with neurosyphilis. A CSF examination should be performed in all instances of ocular syphilis, even in the absence of clinical neurologic findings. Ocular syphilis should be managed in collaboration with an ophthalmologist and according to the treatment and other recommendations for neurosyphilis, even if a CSF examination is normal. In instances of ocular syphilis and abnormal CSF test results, follow-up CSF examinations should be performed to assess treatment response.
If compliance with therapy can be ensured, the following alternative regimen might be considered.
The durations of the recommended and alternative regimens for neurosyphilis are shorter than the duration of the regimen used for latent syphilis. Therefore, benzathine penicillin, 2.4 million units IM once per week for up to 3 weeks, can be considered after completion of these neurosyphilis treatment regimens to provide a comparable total duration of therapy.
Other Management Considerations
The following are other considerations in the management of persons who have neurosyphilis:
- All persons who have neurosyphilis should be tested for HIV.
- Although systemic steroids are used frequently as adjunctive therapy for otologic syphilis, such drugs have not been proven to be beneficial.
Follow-Up
If CSF pleocytosis was present initially, a CSF examination should be repeated every 6 months until the cell count is normal. Follow-up CSF examinations also can be used to evaluate changes in the CSF-VDRL or CSF protein after therapy; however, changes in these two parameters occur more slowly than cell counts, and persistent abnormalities might be less important (424,425). Leukocyte count is a sensitive measure of the effectiveness of therapy. If the cell count has not decreased after 6 months, or if the CSF cell count or protein is not normal after 2 years, retreatment should be considered. Limited data suggest that in immunocompetent persons and persons with HIV infection on highly active antiretroviral therapy, normalization of the serum RPR titer predicts normalization of CSF parameters following neurosyphilis treatment (425).
Management of Sex Partners
Special Considerations
Penicillin Allergy
Limited data suggest that ceftriaxone 2 g daily either IM or IV for 10–14 days can be used as an alternative treatment for persons with neurosyphilis (426,427). Cross-sensitivity between ceftriaxone and penicillin can occur, but the risk for penicillin cross-reactivity between third-generation cephalosporins is negligible (428-431) (see Management of Persons Who Have a History of Penicillin Allergy). If concern exists regarding the safety of ceftriaxone for a patient with neurosyphilis, skin testing should be performed (if available) to confirm penicillin allergy and, if necessary, penicillin desensitization in consultation with a specialist is recommended. Other regimens have not been adequately evaluated for treatment of neurosyphilis.
Pregnancy
Pregnant women who are allergic to penicillin should be desensitized and treated with penicillin. For more information, see Syphilis During Pregnancy.
HIV Infection
Persons with HIV infection who have neurosyphilis should be treated as described for persons without HIV infection. For more information on neurosyphilis, see Syphilis in Persons with HIV infection.
Persons with HIV Infection
Diagnostic Considerations
Interpretation of treponemal and nontreponemal serologic tests for persons with HIV infection is the same as for the HIV-uninfected patient. Although rare, unusual serologic responses have been observed among persons with HIV infection who have syphilis; although most reports have involved post-treatment serologic titers that were higher than expected (high serofast) or fluctuated, false-negative serologic test results and delayed appearance of seroreactivity have also been reported (432).
When clinical findings are suggestive of syphilis but serologic tests are nonreactive or their interpretation is unclear, alternative tests (e.g., biopsy of a lesion, darkfield examination, and PCR of lesion material) might be useful for diagnosis. Neurosyphilis should be considered in the differential diagnosis of neurologic signs and symptoms in persons with HIV infection.
Treatment
Persons with HIV infection who have early syphilis might be at increased risk for neurologic complications (433) and might have higher rates of serologic treatment failure with recommended regimens. The magnitude of these risks is not defined precisely, but is likely small. Although long-term (>1 year) comparative data are lacking, no treatment regimens for syphilis have been demonstrated to be more effective in preventing neurosyphilis in persons with HIV infection than the syphilis regimens recommended for persons without HIV infection (406). Careful follow-up after therapy is essential. The use of antiretroviral therapy as per current guidelines might improve clinical outcomes in persons with HIV infection and syphilis (425,434,435).
Primary and Secondary Syphilis among Persons with HIV Infection
Available data demonstrate that additional doses of benzathine penicillin G, amoxicillin, or other antibiotics in primary and secondary syphilis do not result in enhanced efficacy (406,407).
Other Management Considerations
Most persons with HIV infection respond appropriately to the recommended benzathine penicillin treatment regimen for primary and secondary syphilis. CSF abnormalities (e.g., mononuclear pleocytosis and elevated protein levels) are common in persons with HIV infection, even in those without syphilis. The clinical and prognostic significance of such CSF laboratory abnormalities in persons with primary and secondary syphilis who lack neurologic symptoms is unknown. Certain studies have demonstrated that among persons with HIV infection and syphilis, CSF abnormalities are associated with a CD4 count of ≤350 cells/mL and/or an RPR titer of ≥1:32 (404,436,437); however, CSF examination has not been associated with improved clinical outcomes in the absence of neurologic signs and symptoms. All persons with HIV infection and syphilis should have a careful neurologic exam (425,434,435).
Follow-Up
Persons with HIV infection and primary or secondary syphilis should be evaluated clinically and serologically for treatment failure at 3, 6, 9, 12, and 24 months after therapy; those who meet the criteria for treatment failure (i.e., signs or symptoms that persist or recur or persons who have a sustained [>2 weeks] fourfold increase or greater in titer) should be managed in the same manner as HIV-negative patients (i.e., a CSF examination and retreatment guided by CSF findings). In addition, CSF examination and retreatment can be considered for persons whose nontreponemal test titers do not decrease fourfold within 12–24 months of therapy. If CSF examination is normal, treatment with benzathine penicillin G administered as 2.4 million units IM each at weekly intervals for 3 weeks is recommended. Serologic titers might not decline despite a negative CSF examination and a repeated course of therapy (410). In these circumstances, the need for additional therapy or repeated CSF examinations is unclear, but is not generally recommended. Serologic and clinical monitoring should be provided.
Management of Sex Partners
Special Considerations
Penicillin Allergy
Persons with HIV infection who are penicillin-allergic and have primary or secondary syphilis should be managed according to the recommendations for penicillin-allergic, HIV-negative persons. Persons with penicillin allergy whose compliance with therapy or follow-up cannot be ensured should be desensitized and treated with penicillin (see Management of Persons Who Have a History of Penicillin Allergy). The use of alternatives to penicillin has not been well studied in persons with HIV infection; azithromycin is not recommended in persons with HIV infection and primary and secondary syphilis. Alternative therapies should be used only in conjunction with close serologic and clinical follow-up.
Latent Syphilis among Persons with HIV Infection
Other Management Considerations
All persons with HIV infection and syphilis should undergo a careful neurologic examination; those with neurologic symptoms or signs should undergo immediate CSF examination. In the absence of neurologic symptoms, CSF examination has not been associated with improved clinical outcomes and therefore is not recommended.
Follow-Up
Patients should be evaluated clinically and serologically at 6, 12, 18, and 24 months after therapy. If, at any time, clinical symptoms develop or a sustained (>2 weeks) fourfold or greater rise in nontreponemal titers occurs, a CSF examination should be performed and treatment administered accordingly. If the nontreponemal titer does not decline fourfold after 24 months, CSF examination can be considered and treatment administered accordingly, although initial low titers (<1:8) might not decline. Even after retreatment, serologic titers might fail to decline. In these circumstances, the need for repeated CSF examination or additional therapy is unclear but is generally not recommended. Serologic and clinical monitoring should be provided.
Management of Sex Partners
Special Considerations
Penicillin Allergy
The efficacy of alternative nonpenicillin regimens in persons with HIV infection has not been well studied, and these therapies should be used only in conjunction with close serologic and clinical follow-up. Patients with penicillin allergy whose compliance with therapy or follow-up cannot be ensured should be desensitized and treated with penicillin (see Management of Persons Who Have a History of Penicillin Allergy).
Neurosyphilis among Persons with HIV Infection
All persons with HIV infection and syphilis should receive a careful neurologic examination. Persons with HIV infection and neurosyphilis should be treated according to the recommendations for HIV-negative persons with neurosyphilis (See Neurosyphilis).
Follow-Up
Persons with HIV infection and neurosyphilis should be managed according to the recommendations for HIV-negative persons with neurosyphilis (see Neurosyphilis). Limited data suggest that changes in CSF parameters might occur more slowly in persons with HIV infection, especially those with more advanced immunosuppression (424,434).
Management of Sex Partners
Special Considerations
Penicillin Allergy
Persons with HIV infection who are penicillin-allergic and have neurosyphilis should be managed according to the recommendations for penicillin-allergic, HIV-negative patients with neurosyphilis (See Neurosyphilis). Several small observational studies conducted in persons with HIV infection with neurosyphilis suggest that ceftriaxone 1–2 g IV daily for 10–14 days might be effective as an alternate agent (438-440). The possibility of cross-sensitivity between ceftriaxone and penicillin exists, but the risk of penicillin cross-reactivity between third- generation cephalosporins is negligible (428-431)(see Management of Persons Who Have a History of Penicillin Allergy). If concern exists regarding the safety of ceftriaxone for a person with HIV infection and neurosyphilis, skin testing should be performed (if available) to confirm penicillin allergy and, if necessary, penicillin desensitization in consultation with a specialist is recommended. Other regimens have not been adequately evaluated for treatment of neurosyphilis
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