miércoles, 12 de febrero de 2020

Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer (PDQ®)–Patient Version - National Cancer Institute

Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer (PDQ®)–Patient Version - National Cancer Institute

National Cancer Institute



Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer (PDQ®)–Patient Version

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Endocrine System

KEY POINTS

  • Thyroid gland
    • Thyroid late effects are more likely to occur after treatment for certain childhood cancers.
    • Radiation therapy to the head and neck increases the risk of thyroid late effects.
    • Late effects that affect the thyroid may cause certain health problems.
    • Signs and symptoms of thyroid late effects depend on whether there is too little or too much thyroid hormone in the body.
    • Certain tests and procedures are used to diagnose health problems in the thyroid.
  • Pituitary gland
    • Neuroendocrine late effects may be caused after treatment for certain childhood cancers.
    • Treatment that affects the hypothalamus or pituitary gland increases the risk of neuroendocrine system late effects.
    • Late effects that affect the hypothalamus may cause certain health problems.
    • Certain tests and procedures are used to diagnose health problems in the neuroendocrine system.
  • Testicles and ovaries
  • Metabolic syndrome
    • Metabolic syndrome is more likely to occur after treatment for certain childhood cancers.
    • Radiation therapy increases the risk of metabolic syndrome.
    • Certain tests and procedures are used to diagnose metabolic syndrome.
    • Metabolic syndrome may cause heart and blood vessel disease and diabetes.
  • Weight
    • Being underweight, overweight, or obese is a late effect that is more likely to occur after treatment for certain childhood cancers.
    • Radiation therapy increases the risk of being underweight, overweight, or obese.
    • Certain tests and procedures are used to diagnose a change in weight.

Thyroid gland

Thyroid late effects are more likely to occur after treatment for certain childhood cancers.

Treatment for these and other childhood cancers may cause thyroid late effects:

Radiation therapy to the head and neck increases the risk of thyroid late effects.

The risk of thyroid late effects may be increased in childhood cancer survivors after treatment with any of the following:
The risk also is increased in females, in survivors who were a young age at the time of treatment, in survivors who had a higher radiation dose, and as the time since diagnosis and treatment gets longer.

Late effects that affect the thyroid may cause certain health problems.

Thyroid late effects and related health problems include the following:
  • Hypothyroidism (not enough thyroid hormone): This is the most common thyroid late effect. It usually occurs 2 to 5 years after treatment ends but may occur later. It is more common in girls than boys.
  • Hyperthyroidism (too much thyroid hormone): It usually occurs 3 to 5 years after treatment ends.
  • Goiter (an enlarged thyroid).
  • Lumps in the thyroid: Usually occur 10 or more years after treatment ends. It is more common in girls than boys. These growths may be benign (not cancerous) or malignant (cancer).

Signs and symptoms of thyroid late effects depend on whether there is too little or too much thyroid hormone in the body.

These and other signs and symptoms may be caused by thyroid late effects or by other conditions:
Hypothyroidism (too little thyroid hormone)
  • Feeling tired or weak.
  • Being more sensitive to cold.
  • Pale, dry skin.
  • Coarse and thinning hair.
  • Brittle fingernails.
  • Hoarse voice.
  • Puffy face.
  • Muscle and joint aches and stiffness.
  • Constipation.
  • Menstrual periods that are heavier than normal.
  • Weight gain for no known reason.
  • Depression or trouble with memory or being able to concentrate.
Rarely, hypothyroidism does not cause any symptoms.
Hyperthyroidism (too much thyroid hormone)
  • Feeling nervous, anxious, or moody.
  • Trouble sleeping.
  • Feeling tired or weak.
  • Having shaky hands.
  • Having a fast heartbeat.
  • Having red, warm skin that may be itchy.
  • Having fine, soft hair that is falling out.
  • Having frequent or loose bowel movements.
  • Weight loss for no known reason.
Talk to your child's doctor if your child has any of these problems.

Certain tests and procedures are used to diagnose health problems in the thyroid.

These and other tests and procedures may be used to detect or diagnose thyroid late effects:
  • Physical exam and health history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
  • Blood hormone studies: A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain hormones released into the blood by organs and tissues in the body. An unusual (higher or lower than normal) amount of a substance can be a sign of disease in the organ or tissue that makes it. The blood may be checked for abnormal levels of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) or free thyroxine (T4).
  • Ultrasound exam: A procedure in which high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) are bounced off internal tissues or organs and make echoes. The echoes form a picture of body tissues called a sonogram. The picture can be printed to be looked at later. This procedure can show the size of the thyroid and whether there are nodules (lumps) on the thyroid.
Talk to your child's doctor about whether your child needs to have tests and procedures to check for signs of thyroid late effects. If tests are needed, find out how often they should be done.

Pituitary gland

Neuroendocrine late effects may be caused after treatment for certain childhood cancers.

The neuroendocrine system is the nervous system and the endocrine system working together.
Treatment for these and other childhood cancers may cause neuroendocrine late effects:

Treatment that affects the hypothalamus or pituitary gland increases the risk of neuroendocrine system late effects.

Childhood cancer survivors have an increased risk for neuroendocrine late effects. These effects are caused by radiation therapy to the brain in the area of the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus controls the way hormones are made and released into the bloodstream by the pituitary gland. Radiation therapy may be given to treat cancer near the hypothalamus or as total-body irradiation (TBI) before a stem cell transplant. These effects are also caused by surgery in the area of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, or optic pathways.
Childhood cancer survivors who have neuroendocrine late effects may have low levels of any of the following hormones made in the pituitary gland and released into the blood:

Late effects that affect the hypothalamus may cause certain health problems.

Neuroendocrine late effects and related health problems include the following:
  • Growth hormone deficiency: A low level of growth hormone is a common late effect of radiation to the brain in childhood cancer survivors. The higher the radiation dose and the longer the time since treatment, the greater the risk of this late effect. A low level of growth hormone may also occur in childhood ALL and stem cell transplant survivors who received radiation therapy to the brain and spinal cord and/or chemotherapy.
    A low level of growth hormone in childhood results in adult height that is shorter than normal. If the child's bones have not fully developed, low growth hormone levels may be treated with growth hormone replacement therapy beginning one year after the end of treatment.
  • Adrenocorticotropin deficiency: A low level of adrenocorticotropic hormone is an uncommon late effect. It may occur in childhood brain tumor survivors, survivors with low growth hormone levels or central hypothyroidism, or after radiation therapy to the brain.
    Symptoms of deficiency may not be severe and may not be noticed. Signs and symptoms of adrenocorticotropin deficiency include the following:
    Low levels of adrenocorticotropin may be treated with hydrocortisone therapy.
  • Hyperprolactinemia: A high level of the hormone prolactin may occur after a high dose of radiation to the brain or surgery that affects part of the pituitary gland. A high level of prolactin may cause the following:
    • Puberty at a later age than normal.
    • Flow of breast milk in a woman who is not pregnant or breast-feeding.
    • Less frequent or no menstrual periods or menstrual periods with a very light flow.
    • Hot flashes (in women).
    • Inability to become pregnant.
    • Inability to have an erection needed for sexual intercourse.
    • Lower sex drive (in men and women).
    • Osteopenia (low bone mineral density).
    Sometimes there are no signs and symptoms. Treatment is rarely needed.
  • Thyroid-stimulating hormone deficiency (central hypothyroidism): A low level of thyroid hormone may occur very slowly over time after radiation therapy to the brain.
    Sometimes the symptoms of thyroid-stimulating hormone deficiency are not noticed. Low thyroid hormone levels may cause slow growth and delayed puberty, as well as other symptoms. A low level of thyroid hormone may be treated with thyroid hormone replacement therapy.
  • Luteinizing hormone or follicle-stimulating hormone deficiency: Low levels of these hormones can cause different health problems. The type of problem depends on the radiation dose.
    Childhood cancer survivors who were treated with lower doses of radiation to the brain may develop central precocious puberty (a condition that causes puberty to start before age 8 years in girls and 9 years in boys). This condition may be treated with gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonist therapy to delay puberty and help the child's growth. Hydrocephalus may also increase the risk of this late effect.
    Childhood cancer survivors who were treated with higher doses of radiation to the brain may have low levels of luteinizing hormone or follicle-stimulating hormone. This condition may be treated with sex hormone replacement therapy. The dose will depend on the child's age and whether the child has reached puberty.
  • Central diabetes insipidus: Central diabetes insipidus may be caused by the absence of or low amounts of all of the hormones made in the front part of the pituitary gland and released into the blood. It may occur in childhood cancer survivors treated with surgery in the area of the hypothalamus or pituitary gland. Signs and symptoms of central diabetes insipidus may include the following:
    • Having large amounts of urine or unusually wet diapers.
    • Feeling very thirsty.
    • Headache.
    • Trouble with vision.
    • Slowed growth and development.
    • Weight loss for no known reason.
    Treatment may include hormone replacement therapy with vasopressin, the hormone that controls the amount of urine that is made in the body.

Certain tests and procedures are used to diagnose health problems in the neuroendocrine system.

These and other tests and procedures may be used to detect or diagnose thyroid late effects:
  • Physical exam and health history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
  • Blood chemistry study: A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances, such as glucose, released into the blood by organs and tissues in the body. An unusual (higher or lower than normal) amount of a substance can be a sign of disease.
  • Blood hormone studies: A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain hormones released into the blood by organs and tissues in the body. An unusual (higher or lower than normal) amount of a substance can be a sign of disease in the organ or tissue that makes it. The blood may be checked for abnormal levels of follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, estradiol, testosterone, cortisol, or free thyroxine (T4).
  • Lipid profile studies: A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of triglycerides, cholesterol, and low- and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in the blood.
Talk to your child's doctor about whether your child needs to have tests and procedures to check for signs of neuroendocrine late effects. If tests are needed, find out how often they should be done.

Testicles and ovaries

See the Reproductive System section of this summary for information about late effects in the testicles and ovaries.

Metabolic syndrome

Metabolic syndrome is more likely to occur after treatment for certain childhood cancers.

Metabolic syndrome is a group of medical conditions that includes having too much fat around the abdomen and at least two of the following:
  • High blood pressure.
  • High levels of triglycerides and low levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol in the blood.
  • High levels of glucose (sugar) in the blood.
Treatment for these and other childhood cancers may cause metabolic syndrome to occur later in life:
  • Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL).
  • Cancers treated with a stem cell transplant.
  • Cancers treated with radiation to the abdomen, such as Wilms tumor or neuroblastoma.

Radiation therapy increases the risk of metabolic syndrome.

The risk of metabolic syndrome may be increased in childhood cancer survivors after treatment with any of the following:
  • Radiation therapy to the brain or abdomen.
  • Total-body irradiation (TBI) as part of a stem cell transplant.

Certain tests and procedures are used to diagnose metabolic syndrome.

These and other tests and procedures may be used to detect or diagnose metabolic syndrome:
  • Physical exam and health history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
  • Blood chemistry studies: A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances, such as glucose, released into the blood by organs and tissues in the body. An unusual (higher or lower than normal) amount of a substance can be a sign of disease.
  • Lipid profile studies: A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of triglycerides, cholesterol, and low- and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in the blood.
Talk to your child's doctor about whether your child needs to have tests and procedures to check for signs of metabolic syndrome. If tests are needed, find out how often they should be done.

Metabolic syndrome may cause heart and blood vessel disease and diabetes.

Metabolic syndrome is linked to an increased risk of heart and blood vessel disease and diabetes. Health habits that decrease these risks include:
  • Having a healthy weight.
  • Eating a heart-healthy diet.
  • Having regular exercise.
  • Not smoking.

Weight

Being underweight, overweight, or obese is a late effect that is more likely to occur after treatment for certain childhood cancers.

Treatment for these and other childhood cancers may cause a change in weight:
  • Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL).
  • Brain tumors, especially craniopharyngiomas.
  • Cancers treated with radiation to the brain, including total-body irradiation (TBI) as part of a stem cell transplant.

Radiation therapy increases the risk of being underweight, overweight, or obese.

The risk of being underweight increases after treatment with the following:
  • Total-body irradiation (TBI) for females.
  • Radiation therapy to the abdomen for males.
  • Certain types of chemotherapy (alkylating agents and anthracyclines).
The risk of obesity increases after treatment with the following:
  • Radiation therapy to the brain.
  • Surgery that damages the hypothalamus or pituitary gland, such as surgery to remove a craniopharyngioma brain tumor.
The following may also increase the risk of obesity:
  • Being diagnosed with cancer when aged 5 to 9 years.
  • Being female.
  • Having growth hormone deficiency or low levels of the hormone leptin.
  • Not doing enough physical activity to stay at a healthy body weight.
  • Taking an antidepressant called paroxetine.
Childhood cancer survivors who get enough exercise and have a normal amount of anxiety have a lower risk of obesity.

Certain tests and procedures are used to diagnose a change in weight.

These and other tests and procedures may be used to detect or diagnose a change in weight:
  • Physical exam and health history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including weight or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
  • Blood chemistry studies: A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances, such as glucose, released into the blood by organs and tissues in the body. An unusual (higher or lower than normal) amount of a substance can be a sign of disease.
  • Lipid profile studies: A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of triglycerides, cholesterol, and low- and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in the blood.
Being underweight, overweight, or obese may be measured by weight, body mass index, percent of body fat, or size of the abdomen (belly fat).
Talk to your child's doctor about whether your child needs to have tests and procedures to check for signs of a change in weight. If tests are needed, find out how often they should be done.

Immune System

KEY POINTS

  • Surgery to remove the spleen increases the risk of immune system late effects.
  • Late effects that affect the immune system may cause infection.
  • Children who have had their spleen removed may need antibiotics to lessen the risk of infection.

Surgery to remove the spleen increases the risk of immune system late effects.

The risk of health problems that affect the immune system increases after treatment with the following:

Late effects that affect the immune system may cause infection.

Late effects that affect the immune system may increase the risk of very serious bacterial infections. This risk is higher in younger children than in older children and may be greater in the early years after the spleen stops working or is removed by surgery. These signs and symptoms may be caused by infection:
  • Redness, swelling, or warmth of a part of the body.
  • Pain that is in one part of the body, such as the eye, ear, or throat.
  • Fever.
An infection may cause other symptoms that depend on the part of the body affected. For example, a lung infection may cause a cough and trouble breathing.

Children who have had their spleen removed may need antibiotics to lessen the risk of infection.

Daily antibiotics may be prescribed for children younger than 5 years of age whose spleen is no longer working or for at least 1 year after surgery to remove the spleen. For certain high-risk patients, daily antibiotics may be prescribed throughout childhood and into adulthood.
In addition, children with an increased risk of infection should be vaccinated on a schedule through adolescence against the following:
  • Pneumococcal disease.
  • Meningococcal disease.
  • Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) disease.
  • Diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis (DTaP).
  • Hepatitis B.
Talk to your child's doctor about whether other childhood vaccinations given before cancer treatment need to be repeated.

Musculoskeletal System

KEY POINTS

  • Bone and joint late effects are more likely to occur after treatment for certain childhood cancers.
  • Surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and other treatments increase the risk of bone and joint late effects.
    • Radiation therapy
    • Surgery
    • Chemotherapy and other drug therapy
    • Stem cell transplant
  • Possible signs and symptoms of bone and joint late effects include swelling over a bone or bone and joint pain.
  • Certain tests and procedures are used to diagnose health problems in the bone and joint.

Bone and joint late effects are more likely to occur after treatment for certain childhood cancers.

Treatment for these and other childhood cancers may cause bone and joint late effects:
Poor nutrition and not enough exercise may also cause bone late effects.

Surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and other treatments increase the risk of bone and joint late effects.

Radiation therapy

Radiation therapy can stop or slow the growth of bone. The type of bone and joint late effect depends on the part of the body that received radiation therapy. Radiation therapy may cause any of the following:

Surgery

Amputation or limb-sparing surgery to remove the cancer and prevent it from coming back may cause late effects depending on where the tumor was, age of the patient, and type of surgery. Health problems after amputation or limb-sparing surgery may include:
Studies show no difference in quality of life in childhood cancer survivors who had amputation compared to those who had limb-sparing surgery.

Chemotherapy and other drug therapy

Risk may be increased in childhood cancer survivors who receive anticancer therapy that includes methotrexate or corticosteroids or glucocorticoids such as dexamethasone. Drug therapy may cause any of the following:
  • Osteoporosis (weak or thin bones that can break easily).
  • Osteonecrosis (one or more parts of a bone die from a lack of blood flow), especially in the hip or knee.

Stem cell transplant

A stem cell transplant can affect the bone and joints in different ways:
  • Total-body irradiation (TBI) given as part of a stem cell transplant may affect the body's ability to make growth hormone and cause short stature (being shorter than normal). It may also cause osteoporosis (weak or thin bones that can break easily).
  • Osteochondroma (a benign tumor of the long bones, such as the arm or leg bones) may form.
  • Chronic graft-versus-host disease may occur after a stem cell transplant and cause joint contractures (tightening of the muscles that causes the joint to shorten and become very stiff). It may also cause osteonecrosis (one or more parts of a bone die from a lack of blood flow).

Possible signs and symptoms of bone and joint late effects include swelling over a bone or bone and joint pain.

These and other signs and symptoms may be caused by bone and joint late effects or by other conditions:
  • Swelling over a bone or bony part of the body.
  • Pain in a bone or joint.
  • Redness or warmth over a bone or joint.
  • Joint stiffness or trouble moving normally.
  • A bone that breaks for no known reason or breaks easily.
  • Short stature (being shorter than normal).
  • One side of the body looks higher than the other side or the body tilts to one side.
  • Always sitting or standing in a slouching position or having the appearance of a hunched back.
Talk to your child's doctor if your child has any of these problems.

Certain tests and procedures are used to diagnose health problems in the bone and joint.

These and other tests and procedures may be used to detect or diagnose bone and joint late effects:
  • Physical exam and health history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health habits, past illnesses and treatments will also be taken. An exam of the bones and muscles by a specialist may also be done.
  • Bone mineral density scan: An imaging test that measures bone density (the amount of bone mineral in a certain amount of bone) by passing x-rays with two different energy levels through the bone. It is used to diagnose osteoporosis (weak or thin bones that can break easily). Also called BMD scan, DEXA, DEXA scan, dual energy x-ray absorptiometric scan, dual x-ray absorptiometry, and DXA.
  • X-ray: An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film, making a picture of areas inside the body, such as bones.
Talk to your child's doctor about whether your child needs to have tests and procedures to check for signs of bone and joint late effects. If tests are needed, find out how often they should be done.

Reproductive System

KEY POINTS

  • Testicles
    • Testicular late effects are more likely to occur after treatment for certain childhood cancers.
    • Surgery, radiation therapy, and certain types of chemotherapy increase the risk of late effects that affect the testicles.
    • Late effects that affect the testicles may cause certain health problems.
  • Ovaries
    • Ovarian late effects are more likely to occur after treatment for certain childhood cancers.
    • Radiation therapy to the abdomen and certain types of chemotherapy increase the risk of ovarian late effects.
    • Late effects that affect the ovaries may cause certain health problems.
    • Possible signs and symptoms of ovarian late effects include irregular or absent menstrual periods and hot flashes.
  • Fertility and reproduction
    • Treatment for cancer may cause infertility in childhood cancer survivors.
    • Childhood cancer survivors may have late effects that affect pregnancy.
    • There are methods that may be used to help childhood cancer survivors have children.
    • Children of childhood cancer survivors are not affected by the parent’s previous treatment for cancer.

Testicles

Testicular late effects are more likely to occur after treatment for certain childhood cancers.

Treatment for these and other childhood cancers may cause testicular late effects:

Surgery, radiation therapy, and certain types of chemotherapy increase the risk of late effects that affect the testicles.

The risk of health problems that affect the testicles increases after treatment with one or more of the following:

Late effects that affect the testicles may cause certain health problems.

Late effects of the testicles and related health problems include the following:
After treatment with chemotherapy or radiation, the body’s ability to make sperm may come back over time.

Ovaries

Ovarian late effects are more likely to occur after treatment for certain childhood cancers.

Treatment for these and other childhood cancers may cause ovarian late effects:
  • Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL).
  • Germ cell tumors.
  • Hodgkin lymphoma.
  • Ovarian cancer.
  • Wilms tumor.
  • Cancers treated with total-body irradiation (TBI) before a stem cell transplant.

Radiation therapy to the abdomen and certain types of chemotherapy increase the risk of ovarian late effects.

The risk of ovarian late effects may be increased after treatment with any of the following:
  • Surgery to remove one or both ovaries.
  • Chemotherapy with alkylating agents, such as cyclophosphamide, mechlorethamine, cisplatin, ifosfamide, lomustine, busulfan, and especially procarbazine.
  • Radiation therapy to the abdomen, pelvis, or lower back. In survivors who had radiation to the abdomen, the damage to the ovaries depends on the radiation dose, age at the time of treatment, and whether all or part of the abdomen received radiation.
  • Radiation therapy to the abdomen or pelvis together with alkylating agents.
  • Radiation therapy to the area near the hypothalamus in the brain.
  • Total-body irradiation (TBI) before a stem cell transplant.

Late effects that affect the ovaries may cause certain health problems.

Ovarian late effects and other health related problems include the following:
  • Early menopause, especially in women who had their ovaries removed or were treated with both an alkylating agent and radiation therapy to the abdomen.
  • Changes in menstrual periods.
  • Infertility (inability to conceive a child).
  • Puberty does not begin.
After treatment with chemotherapy, the ovaries may begin to work over time.

Possible signs and symptoms of ovarian late effects include irregular or absent menstrual periods and hot flashes.

These and other signs and symptoms may be caused by ovarian late effects or by other conditions:
  • Irregular or no menstrual periods.
  • Hot flashes.
  • Drenching night sweats.
  • Trouble sleeping.
  • Mood changes.
  • Lowered sex drive.
  • Vaginal dryness.
  • Inability to conceive a child.
  • Sex traits, such as developing arm, pubic, and leg hair or having the breasts enlarge, do not occur at puberty.
  • Osteoporosis (weak or thin bones that can break easily).
Talk to your child's doctor if your child has any of these problems.

Fertility and reproduction

Treatment for cancer may cause infertility in childhood cancer survivors.

The risk of infertility increases after treatment with the following:
  • In boys, treatment with radiation therapy to the testicles.
  • In girls, treatment with radiation therapy to the pelvis, including the ovaries and uterus.
  • Radiation therapy to an area near the hypothalamus in the brain or lower back.
  • Total-body irradiation (TBI) before a stem cell transplant.
  • Chemotherapy with alkylating agents, such as cisplatin, cyclophosphamide, busulfan, lomustine, and procarbazine.
  • Surgery, such as the removal of a testicle or an ovary or lymph nodes in the abdomen.

Childhood cancer survivors may have late effects that affect pregnancy.

Late effects on pregnancy include increased risk of the following:
  • High blood pressure.
  • Diabetes during pregnancy.
  • Anemia.
  • Miscarriage or stillbirth.
  • Low birth-weight babies.
  • Early labor and/or delivery.
  • Delivery by Cesarean section.
  • The fetus is not in the right position for birth (for example, the foot or buttock is in position to come out before the head).
Some studies have not shown an increased risk of late effects on pregnancy.

There are methods that may be used to help childhood cancer survivors have children.

The following methods may be used so that childhood cancer survivors can have children:
  • Freezing the eggs or sperm before cancer treatment in patients who have reached puberty.
  • Testicular sperm extraction (the removal of a small amount of tissue containing sperm from the testicle).
  • Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (an egg is fertilized with one sperm that is injected into the egg outside the body).
  • In vitro fertilization (IVF) (eggs and sperm are placed together in a container, giving the sperm the chance to enter an egg).

Children of childhood cancer survivors are not affected by the parent’s previous treatment for cancer.

The children of childhood cancer survivors do not appear to have an increased risk of birth defects, genetic disease, or cancer.

Respiratory System

KEY POINTS

  • Lung late effects are more likely to occur after treatment for certain childhood cancers.
  • Certain types of chemotherapy and radiation to the lungs increase the risk of lung late effects.
  • Late effects that affect the lungs may cause certain health problems.
  • Possible signs and symptoms of lung late effects include trouble breathing and cough.
  • Certain tests and procedures are used to diagnose health problems in the lung.
  • Health habits that promote healthy lungs are important for survivors of childhood cancer.

Lung late effects are more likely to occur after treatment for certain childhood cancers.

Treatment for these and other childhood cancers may cause lung late effects:

Certain types of chemotherapy and radiation to the lungs increase the risk of lung late effects.

The risk of health problems that affect the lungs increases after treatment with the following:
  • Surgery to remove all or part of the lung or chest wall.
  • Chemotherapy. In survivors treated with chemotherapy, such as bleomycin, busulfan, carmustine, or lomustine, and radiation therapy to the chest, there is a high risk of lung damage.
  • Radiation therapy to the chest. In survivors who had radiation to the chest, the damage to the lungs and chest wall depends on the radiation dose, whether all or part of the lungs and chest wall received radiation, whether the radiation was given in small, divided daily doses, and the child's age at treatment.
  • Total-body irradiation (TBI) or certain types of chemotherapy before a stem cell transplant.
The risk of lung late effects is greater in childhood cancer survivors who are treated with a combination of surgery, chemotherapy, and/or radiation therapy. The risk is also increased in survivors who have a history of the following:

Late effects that affect the lungs may cause certain health problems.

Lung late effects and related health problems include the following:

Possible signs and symptoms of lung late effects include trouble breathing and cough.

These and other signs and symptoms may be caused by lung late effects or by other conditions:
  • Dyspnea (shortness of breath), especially when being active.
  • Wheezing.
  • Fever.
  • Chronic cough.
  • Congestion (a feeling of fullness in the lungs from extra mucus).
  • Chronic lung infections.
  • Feeling tired.
Talk to your child's doctor if your child has any of these problems.
Lung late effects in childhood cancer survivors may occur slowly over time or there may be no symptoms. Sometimes lung damage can be detected only by imaging or pulmonary function testing. Lung late effects may improve over time.

Certain tests and procedures are used to diagnose health problems in the lung.

These and other tests and procedures may be used to detect or diagnose lung late effects:
  • Physical exam and health history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
  • Chest x-ray: An x-ray of the organs and bones inside the chest. An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film, making a picture of areas inside the body.
  • Pulmonary function test (PFT): A test to see how well the lungs are working. It measures how much air the lungs can hold and how quickly air moves into and out of the lungs. It also measures how much oxygen is used and how much carbon dioxide is given off during breathing. This is also called lung function test.
Talk to your child's doctor about whether your child needs to have tests and procedures to check for signs of lung late effects. If tests are needed, find out how often they should be done.

Health habits that promote healthy lungs are important for survivors of childhood cancer.

Childhood cancer survivors with lung late effects should take care to protect their health, including:
  • Not smoking.
  • Getting vaccines for flu and pneumococcus.

Senses

KEY POINTS

  • Hearing
    • Hearing problems are a late effect that is more likely to occur after treatment for certain childhood cancers.
    • Radiation therapy to the brain and certain types of chemotherapy increase the risk of hearing loss.
    • Hearing loss is the most common sign of hearing late effects.
    • Certain tests and procedures are used to diagnose health problems in the ear and hearing problems.
  • Seeing
    • Eye and vision problems are a late effect that is more likely to occur after treatment for certain childhood cancers.
    • Radiation therapy to the brain or head increases the risk of eye problems or vision loss.
    • Late effects that affect the eye may cause certain health problems.
    • Possible signs and symptoms of eye and vision late effects include changes in vision and dry eyes.
    • Certain tests and procedures are used to diagnose health problems in the eye and vision problems.

Hearing

Hearing problems are a late effect that is more likely to occur after treatment for certain childhood cancers.

Treatment for these and other childhood cancers may cause hearing late effects:

Radiation therapy to the brain and certain types of chemotherapy increase the risk of hearing loss.

The risk of hearing loss is increased in childhood cancer survivors after treatment with the following:
The risk of hearing loss is greater in childhood cancer survivors who were young at the time of treatment (the younger the child, the greater the risk), were treated for a brain tumor, or received radiation therapy to the brain and chemotherapy at the same time.

Hearing loss is the most common sign of hearing late effects.

These and other signs and symptoms may be caused by hearing late effects or by other conditions:
  • Hearing loss.
  • Ringing in the ears.
  • Feeling dizzy.
  • Too much hardened wax in the ear.
Hearing loss may occur during treatment, soon after treatment ends, or several months or years after treatment ends and worsen over time. Talk to your child's doctor if your child has any of these problems.

Certain tests and procedures are used to diagnose health problems in the ear and hearing problems.

These and other tests and procedures may be used to detect or diagnose hearing late effects:
  • Physical exam and health history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
  • Otoscopic exam: An exam of the ear. An otoscope is used to look at the ear canal and the eardrum to check for signs of infection or hearing loss. Sometimes the otoscope has a plastic bulb that is squeezed to release a small puff air into the ear canal. In a healthy ear, the eardrum will move. If there is fluid behind the eardrum, it will not move.
  • Hearing test: A hearing test can be done in different ways depending on the child's age. The test is done to check if the child can hear soft and loud sounds and low- and high-pitched sounds. Each ear is checked separately. The child may also be asked if he or she can hear the high-pitched hum of a tuning fork when it is placed behind the ear or on the forehead.
Talk to your child's doctor about whether your child needs to have tests and procedures to check for signs of hearing late effects. If tests are needed, find out how often they should be done.

Seeing

Eye and vision problems are a late effect that is more likely to occur after treatment for certain childhood cancers.

Treatment for these and other childhood cancers may cause eye and vision late effects:

Radiation therapy to the brain or head increases the risk of eye problems or vision loss.

The risk of eye problems or vision loss may be increased in childhood cancer survivors after treatment with any of the following:

Late effects that affect the eye may cause certain health problems.

Eye late effects and related health problems include the following:
  • Having a small eye socket that affects the shape of the child’s face as it grows.
  • Loss of vision.
  • Vision problems, such as cataracts or glaucoma.
  • Not being able to make tears.
  • Damage to the optic nerve and retina.
  • Eyelid tumors.

Possible signs and symptoms of eye and vision late effects include changes in vision and dry eyes.

These and other signs and symptoms may be caused by eye and vision late effects or by other conditions:
  • Changes in vision, such as:
    • Not being able to see objects that are close.
    • Not being able to see objects that are far away.
    • Double vision.
    • Cloudy or blurred vision.
    • Colors seem faded.
    • Being sensitive to light or trouble seeing at night.
    • Seeing a glare or halo around lights at night.
  • Dry eyes that may feel like they are itchy, burning, or swollen, or like there is something in the eye.
  • Eye pain.
  • Eye redness.
  • Having a growth on the eyelid.
  • Drooping of the upper eyelid.
Talk to your child's doctor if your child has any of these problems.

Certain tests and procedures are used to diagnose health problems in the eye and vision problems.

These and other tests and procedures may be used to detect or diagnose eye and vision late effects:
  • Eye exam with dilated pupil: An exam of the eye in which the pupil is dilated (widened) with medicated eye drops to allow the doctor to look through the lens and pupil to the retina. The inside of the eye, including the retina and the optic nerve, is checked using an instrument that makes a narrow beam of light. This is sometimes called a slit-lamp exam. If there is a tumor, the doctor may take pictures over time to keep track of changes in the size of the tumor and how fast it is growing.
  • Indirect ophthalmoscopy: An exam of the inside of the back of the eye using a small magnifying lens and a light.
Talk to your child's doctor about whether your child needs to have tests and procedures to check for signs of eye and vision late effects. If tests are needed, find out how often they should be done.

Urinary System

KEY POINTS

  • Kidney
    • Certain types of chemotherapy increase the risk of kidney late effects.
    • Late effects that affect the kidney may cause certain health problems.
    • Possible signs and symptoms of kidney late effects include problems urinating and swelling of the feet or hands.
    • Certain tests and procedures are used to diagnose health problems in the kidney.
    • Health habits that promote healthy kidneys are important for survivors of childhood cancer.
  • Bladder
    • Surgery to the pelvic area and certain types of chemotherapy increase the risk of bladder late effects.
    • Late effects that affect the bladder may cause certain health problems.
    • Possible signs and symptoms of bladder late effects include changes in urination and swelling of the feet or hands.
    • Certain tests and procedures are used to diagnose health problems in the bladder.

Kidney

Certain types of chemotherapy increase the risk of kidney late effects.

The risk of health problems that affect the kidney increases after treatment with the following:
The risk of kidney late effects is greater in childhood cancer survivors who are treated with a combination of surgery, chemotherapy, and/or radiation therapy.
The following may also increase the risk of kidney late effects:

Late effects that affect the kidney may cause certain health problems.

Kidney late effects or related health problems include the following:

Possible signs and symptoms of kidney late effects include problems urinating and swelling of the feet or hands.

These and other signs and symptoms may be caused by kidney late effects or by other conditions:
  • Feeling the need to urinate without being able to do so.
  • Frequent urination (especially at night).
  • Trouble urinating.
  • Feeling very tired.
  • Swelling of the legs, ankles, feet, face, or hands.
  • Itchy skin.
  • Nausea or vomiting.
  • A metal-like taste in the mouth or bad breath.
  • Headache.
Sometimes there are no signs or symptoms in the early stages. Signs or symptoms may appear as damage to the kidney continues over time. Talk to your child's doctor if your child has any of these problems.

Certain tests and procedures are used to diagnose health problems in the kidney.

These and other tests and procedures may be used to detect or diagnose kidney late effects:
  • Physical exam and health history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
  • Blood chemistry study: A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances, such as magnesium, calcium, and potassium, released into the blood by organs and tissues in the body. An unusual (higher or lower than normal) amount of a substance may be a sign of kidney disease.
  • Urinalysis: A test to check the color of urine and its contents, such as sugar, protein, red blood cells, and white blood cells.
  • Ultrasound exam: A procedure in which high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) are bounced off internal tissues or organs, such as the kidney, and make echoes. The echoes form a picture of body tissues called a sonogram. The picture can be printed to be looked at later.
Talk to your child's doctor about whether your child needs to have tests and procedures to check for signs of kidney late effects. If tests are needed, find out how often they should be done.

Health habits that promote healthy kidneys are important for survivors of childhood cancer.

Childhood cancer survivors who had all or part of their kidney removed should talk to their doctor about the following:
  • Whether it is safe to play sports that have a high risk of heavy contact or impact such as football or hockey.
  • Bicycle safety and avoiding handlebar injuries.
  • Wearing a seatbelt around the hips, not the waist.

Bladder

Surgery to the pelvic area and certain types of chemotherapy increase the risk of bladder late effects.

The risk of health problems that affect the bladder increases after treatment with the following:
  • Surgery to remove all or part of the bladder.
  • Surgery to the pelvis, spine, or brain.
  • Certain types of chemotherapy, such as cyclophosphamide or ifosfamide.
  • Radiation therapy to areas near the bladder, pelvis, or urinary tract.
  • Stem cell transplant.

Late effects that affect the bladder may cause certain health problems.

Bladder late effects and related health problems include the following:

Possible signs and symptoms of bladder late effects include changes in urination and swelling of the feet or hands.

These and other signs and symptoms may be caused by bladder late effects or by other conditions:
  • Feeling the need to urinate without being able to do so.
  • Frequent urination (especially at night).
  • Trouble urinating.
  • Feeling like the bladder does not empty completely after urination.
  • Swelling of the legs, ankles, feet, face, or hands.
  • Little or no bladder control.
  • Blood in the urine.
Talk to your child's doctor if your child has any of these problems.

Certain tests and procedures are used to diagnose health problems in the bladder.

These and other tests and procedures may be used to detect or diagnose bladder late effects:
  • Physical exam and health history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
  • Blood chemistry study: A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances, such as magnesium, calcium, and potassium, released into the blood by organs and tissues in the body. An unusual (higher or lower than normal) amount of a substance may be a sign of bladder problems.
  • Urinalysis: A test to check the color of urine and its contents, such as sugar, protein, red blood cells, and white blood cells.
  • Urine culture: A test to check for bacteria, yeast, or other microorganisms in the urine when there are symptoms of infection. Urine cultures can help identify the type of microorganism that is causing an infection. Treatment of the infection depends on the type of microorganism that is causing the infection.
  • Ultrasound exam: A procedure in which high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) are bounced off internal tissues or organs, such as the bladder, and make echoes. The echoes form a picture of body tissues called a sonogram. The picture can be printed to be looked at later.
Talk to your child's doctor about whether your child needs to have tests and procedures to check for signs of bladder late effects. If tests are needed, find out how often they should be done.

To Learn More About Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer

For more information about late effects of treatment for childhood cancer, see the following:
For more childhood cancer information and other general cancer resources from the National Cancer Institute, see the following:

About This PDQ Summary

About PDQ

Physician Data Query (PDQ) is the National Cancer Institute's (NCI's) comprehensive cancer information database. The PDQ database contains summaries of the latest published information on cancer prevention, detection, genetics, treatment, supportive care, and complementary and alternative medicine. Most summaries come in two versions. The health professional versions have detailed information written in technical language. The patient versions are written in easy-to-understand, nontechnical language. Both versions have cancer information that is accurate and up to date and most versions are also available in Spanish.
PDQ is a service of the NCI. The NCI is part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). NIH is the federal government’s center of biomedical research. The PDQ summaries are based on an independent review of the medical literature. They are not policy statements of the NCI or the NIH.

Purpose of This Summary

This PDQ cancer information summary has current information about the late effects of treatment for childhood cancer. It is meant to inform and help patients, families, and caregivers. It does not give formal guidelines or recommendations for making decisions about health care.

Reviewers and Updates

Editorial Boards write the PDQ cancer information summaries and keep them up to date. These Boards are made up of experts in cancer treatment and other specialties related to cancer. The summaries are reviewed regularly and changes are made when there is new information. The date on each summary ("Updated") is the date of the most recent change.
The information in this patient summary was taken from the health professional version, which is reviewed regularly and updated as needed, by the PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board.

Clinical Trial Information

A clinical trial is a study to answer a scientific question, such as whether one treatment is better than another. Trials are based on past studies and what has been learned in the laboratory. Each trial answers certain scientific questions in order to find new and better ways to help cancer patients. During treatment clinical trials, information is collected about the effects of a new treatment and how well it works. If a clinical trial shows that a new treatment is better than one currently being used, the new treatment may become "standard." Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial. Some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment.
Clinical trials can be found online at NCI's website. For more information, call the Cancer Information Service (CIS), NCI's contact center, at 1-800-4-CANCER (1-800-422-6237).

Permission to Use This Summary

PDQ is a registered trademark. The content of PDQ documents can be used freely as text. It cannot be identified as an NCI PDQ cancer information summary unless the whole summary is shown and it is updated regularly. However, a user would be allowed to write a sentence such as “NCI’s PDQ cancer information summary about breast cancer prevention states the risks in the following way: [include excerpt from the summary].”
The best way to cite this PDQ summary is:
PDQ® Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Updated <MM/DD/YYYY>. Available at: https://www.cancer.gov/types/childhood-cancers/late-effects-pdq. Accessed <MM/DD/YYYY>. [PMID: 26389365]
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