Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment - National Cancer Institute

Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment (PDQ®)–Health Professional Version

Aggressive NHL

Aggressive non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) includes the following subtypes:

Diffuse Large B-cell Lymphoma

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is the most common NHL and comprises 30% of newly diagnosed cases.[1] Most patients present with rapidly enlarging masses, often with both local and systemic symptoms (designated B symptoms with fever, recurrent night sweats, or weight loss). (Refer to the PDQ summary on Hot Flashes and Night Sweats and the PDQ summary on Nutrition in Cancer Care for more information on weight loss.)

Some cases of large B-cell lymphoma have a prominent background of reactive T cells and often of histiocytes, so-called T-cell/histiocyte-rich large B-cell lymphoma. This subtype of large cell lymphoma has frequent liver, spleen, and bone marrow involvement; however, the outcome is equivalent to that of similarly staged patients with DLBCL.[2-4] Some patients with DLBCL at diagnosis have a concomitant indolent small B-cell component; while overall survival (OS) appears similar after multidrug chemotherapy, there is a higher risk of indolent relapse.[5]

Prognosis

The vast majority of patients with localized disease are curable with combined–modality therapy or combination chemotherapy alone.[6] For patients with advanced-stage disease, 50% of presenting patients are cured with doxorubicin-based combination chemotherapy and rituximab.[7-9]

The National Comprehensive Cancer Network International Prognostic Index (IPI) for aggressive NHL (diffuse large cell lymphoma) identifies five significant risk factors prognostic of OS:[10]

Age <40 years: 0; 41–60 years: 1; 61–75 years: 2; >75 years: 3.
Stage III/IV: 1.
Performance status 2/3/4: 1.
Serum lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) normalized: 0; >1x–3x: 1; >3x: 2.
Number of extranodal sites ≥2: 1.

Risk scores:

Low (0 or 1): 5-year OS, 96%; progression-free survival (PFS), 91%.
Low intermediate (2 or 3): 5-year OS, 82%; PFS, 74%.
High intermediate (4 or 5): 5-year OS, 64%; PFS, 51%.
High (>6): 5-year OS, 33%; PFS, 30%.

Age-adjusted and stage-adjusted modifications of this IPI are used for younger patients with localized disease.[11] Shorter intervals of time between diagnosis and treatment appear to be a surrogate for poor prognostic biologic factors.[12]

The BCL2 gene and rearrangement of the MYC gene or dual overexpression of the MYCgene, or both, confer a particularly poor prognosis.[13-15] Dose-intensive therapies, infusional therapies, and stem cell transplantation consolidation are being explored in this high-risk group.[16,17] A retrospective review evaluated 159 patients with previously untreated DLBCL who underwent double-hit genetic testing by fluorescence in situhybridization (FISH) and achieved complete response (CR).[18] The induction therapy did not alter 3-year relapse-free survival or OS when autologous stem cell transplantation (SCT) was employed.

In a retrospective review of 117 patients with relapsed or refractory DLBCL who underwent autologous SCT, the 4-year OS was 25% for double-hit lymphomas (rearrangement of BCL2and MYC), 61% for double-expressor lymphomas (no rearrangement, but increased expression of BCL2 and MYC), and 70% for patients without these features.[19] Patients at high risk of relapse may be considered for clinical trials.[20]

Molecular profiles of gene expression using DNA microarrays may help to stratify patients in the future for therapies directed at specific targets and to better predict survival after standard chemotherapy.[21-26] Patients who have DLBCL with coexpression of CD20 and CD30 may define a subgroup with a unique molecular signature, a more favorable prognosis, and possible therapeutic implication for the use of anti-CD30–specific therapy, such as brentuximab vedotin.[27] Patients with DLBCL who are event-free after 2 years have a subsequent OS equivalent to that of the age- and sex-matched general population.[28]

Central nervous system (CNS) prophylaxis

CNS prophylaxis (usually with four to six injections of methotrexate intrathecally) is recommended for patients with testicular involvement. Some clinicians are employing high-dose intravenous methotrexate (usually four doses) as an alternative to intrathecal therapy because drug delivery is improved and patient morbidity is decreased.[29] CNS prophylaxis for bone marrow involvement is controversial; some investigators recommend it, others do not.[30,31]

A retrospective analysis of 605 patients with diffuse large cell lymphoma who did not receive prophylactic intrathecal therapy identified an elevated serum LDH and more than one extranodal site as independent risk factors for CNS recurrence. Patients with both risk factors have a 17% probability of CNS recurrence at 1 year after diagnosis (95% confidence interval [CI], 7%–28%) versus 2.8% (95% CI, 2.7%–2.9%) for the remaining patients.[32][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiii]

The CNS-IPI is a tool used to predict which patients have a risk of CNS relapse above 10%. It was developed by the German Lymphoma Study Group and validated by the British Columbia Cancer Agency database. Four to six of the IPI risk factors (refer to the Prognosissection of this summary for more information) and involvement of the kidneys or adrenal glands were used to define the high-risk group that might benefit from CNS prophylaxis.[33]

The addition of rituximab to cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, prednisone (CHOP)-based regimens has significantly reduced the risk of CNS relapse in retrospective analyses.[34,35] Patients with CNS dissemination at diagnosis or at relapse usually receive rituximab and high doses of methotrexate and/or cytarabine followed by autologous SCT, but this approach has not been assessed in randomized trials.[36,37][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv]

Primary Mediastinal Large B-cell Lymphoma

Primary mediastinal (thymic) large B-cell lymphoma is a subset of DLBCL with molecular characteristics that are most similar to nodular-sclerosing Hodgkin lymphoma (HL). Mediastinal lymphomas with features intermediate between primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma and nodular-sclerosing HL are called mediastinal gray-zone lymphomas.[38,39] Patients are usually female and young (median age, 30–40 years). Patients present with a locally invasive anterior mediastinal mass that may cause respiratory symptoms or superior vena cava syndrome.

Prognosis and therapy is the same as for other comparably staged patients with DLBCL. Uncontrolled, phase II studies employing dose-adjusted EPOCH (etoposide, prednisone, vincristine, cyclophosphamide, and doxorubicin) plus rituximab or R-CHOP (rituximab, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone) show high cure rates while avoiding any mediastinal radiation.[39-43][Level of evidence: 3iiiA] These results suggest that patients who receive R-CHOP–based regimens may avoid the serious long-term complications of radiation therapy when given with chemotherapy. Posttreatment fluorine F 18-fludeoxyglucose (18F-FDG) positron emission tomography–computed tomography (PET-CT) scans are controversial; it remains unclear if PET scans can reliably identify patients who can take or omit radiation therapy consolidation.[40,44-46] The only randomized trial showing an OS advantage for combined modality therapy was retracted. In situations where mediastinal radiation would encompass the left side of the heart or would increase breast cancer risk in young female patients, proton therapy may be considered to reduce radiation dose to organs at risk.[47] (Refer to the Superior Vena Cava Syndrome section in the PDQ summary on Cardiopulmonary Syndromes for more information.)

Follicular Large Cell Lymphoma

Prognosis

The natural history of follicular large cell lymphoma remains controversial.[48] While there is agreement about the significant number of long-term disease-free survivors with early-stage disease, the curability of patients with advanced disease (stage III or stage IV) remains uncertain. Some groups report a continuous relapse rate similar to the other follicular lymphomas (a pattern of indolent lymphoma).[49] Other investigators report a plateau in freedom from progression at levels expected for an aggressive lymphoma (40% at 10 years).[50,51] This discrepancy may be caused by variations in histologic classification between institutions and the rarity of patients with follicular large cell lymphoma. A retrospective review of 252 patients, all treated with anthracycline-containing combination chemotherapy, showed that patients with more than 50% diffuse components on biopsy had a worse OS than other patients with follicular large cell lymphoma.[52]

Therapeutic approaches

Treatment of follicular large cell lymphoma is more similar to treatment of aggressive NHL than it is to the treatment of indolent NHL. In support of this approach, treatment with high-dose chemotherapy and autologous hematopoietic peripheral SCT shows the same curative potential in patients with follicular large cell lymphoma who relapse as it does in patients with diffuse large cell lymphoma who relapse.[53][Level of evidence: 3iiiA]

Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma

Anaplastic large cell lymphomas (ALCL) may be confused with carcinomas and are associated with the Ki-1 (CD30) antigen. These lymphomas are usually of T-cell origin, often present with extranodal disease, and are found especially in the skin.[54]

The translocation of chromosomes 2 and 5 creates a unique fusion protein with a nucleophosmin-anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK).[54,55]

Patients whose lymphomas express ALK (immunohistochemistry) are usually younger and may have systemic symptoms, extranodal disease, and advanced-stage disease; however, they have a more favorable survival rate than that of ALK-negative patients.[56,57]

In a prospective randomized trial of 452 patients with CD30-positive T-cell lymphoma, 70% of whom had ALCL (22% ALK-positive and 48% ALK-negative patients), the previously used standard regimen, CHOP, was compared with brentuximab vedotin (an anti-CD30 monoclonal antibody conjugated to a cytotoxic agent) combined with cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, and prednisone.[58] With a median follow-up of 35 months, the brentuximab combination (3-year OS, 77%) showed an OS advantage over CHOP (3-year OS, 68%); (hazard ratio [HR], 0.66; 95% CI, 0.46–0.95; P = .02).[58][Level of evidence: 1iiA] This established brentuximab plus cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, and prednisone as a new option for patients with anaplastic large cell lymphoma and other CD30-positive T-cell lymphomas, such as angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma and peripheral T-cell lymphoma, not otherwise specified. For patients with relapsed disease, anecdotal responses have been reported for brentuximab vedotin (anti-tubulin agent attached to a CD30-specific monoclonal antibody),[59-62] romidepsin,[63] and pralatrexate.[64][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] In a phase II study (NCT00866047), 66% of 58 patients attained a CR with brentuximab vedotin. At a median follow-up of 58 months, the 5-year PFS was 57% (95% CI, 41%–74%), and the 5-year OS was 79% (95% CI, 65%–92%) with 42% of these patients undergoing hematopoietic SCT.[62][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] For patients with relapsed disease, autologous or allogeneic SCT showed a 50% 3-year PFS for 39 patients in a retrospective review.[65][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiii]

ALCL in children is usually characterized by systemic and cutaneous disease and has high response rates and good OS with doxorubicin-based combination chemotherapy.[66] Patients with breast implant–associated ALCL may do well without chemotherapy after capsulectomy and implant removal if the disease is confined to the fibrous capsule, and no associated mass is present.[67-69]

Extranodal Natural Killer (NK)-/T-cell Lymphoma

Extranodal natural killer (NK)-/T-cell lymphoma (nasal type) is an aggressive lymphoma marked by extensive necrosis and angioinvasion, most often presenting in extranodal sites, in particular the nasal or paranasal sinus region.[70] Other extranodal sites include the palate, trachea, skin, and gastrointestinal tract. Hemophagocytic syndrome may occur; historically, these tumors were considered part of lethal midline granuloma.[71] In most cases, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) genomes are detectable in the tumor cells and immunophenotyping shows CD56 positivity. Cases with blood and marrow involvement are considered NK-cell leukemia.

The increased risk of CNS involvement and of local recurrence has led to recommendations for radiation therapy locally, concurrently, before the start of chemotherapy or between cycle two and three of chemotherapy, and for intrathecal prophylaxis and/or prophylactic cranial radiation therapy.[72-79] A retrospective review of 1,273 early-stage patients stratified them into a low-risk group and high-risk group using stage, age, LDH, performance status, and primary tumor invasion. Low-risk patients fared best with radiation therapy alone,[80] while high-risk patients fared best with a strategy of radiation therapy concurrent with chemotherapy, following cycle two of chemotherapy, or followed by chemotherapy.[78,81,82] Higher doses of radiation therapy administered at more than 50 Gy are associated with improved outcomes according to anecdotal reports.[78] The highly aggressive course, with poor response and short survival with standard therapies, especially for patients with advanced-stage disease or extranasal presentation, has led some investigators to recommend autologous or allogeneic peripheral SCT consolidation.[79,83-87] L-asparaginase-containing regimens have shown anecdotal response rates greater than 50% for relapsing, refractory, or newly diagnosed stage IV patients.[79,88,89] NK-/T-cell lymphoma that presents only in the skin has a more favorable prognosis, especially in patients with coexpression of CD30 with CD56.[90] A benign NK-cell enteropathy (EBV negative) on endoscopic biopsy can be distinguished from NK-/T-cell lymphoma.[91]

Lymphomatoid Granulomatosis

Lymphomatoid granulomatosis is an EBV-positive large B-cell lymphoma with a predominant T-cell background.[92,93] The histology shows association with angioinvasion and vasculitis, usually manifesting as pulmonary lesions or paranasal sinus involvement.

Patients are managed like others with diffuse large cell lymphoma and require doxorubicin-based combination chemotherapy.

Angioimmunoblastic T-cell Lymphoma

Angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma (AITL or ATCL) was formerly called angioimmunoblastic lymphadenopathy with dysproteinemia. Characterized by clonal T-cell receptor gene rearrangement, this entity is managed like diffuse large cell lymphoma.[94-97] Patients present with profound lymphadenopathy, fever, night sweats, weight loss, skin rash, a positive Coombs test, and polyclonal hypergammaglobulinemia.[71] (Refer to the information on night sweats in the PDQ summary on Hot Flashes and Night Sweats, information on weight loss in the in the PDQ summary on Nutrition in Cancer Care, and information on skin rash in the PDQ summary on Pruritus.) Opportunistic infections are frequent because of an underlying immune deficiency. B-cell EBV genomes are detected in most affected patients.[98]

Doxorubicin-based combination chemotherapy, such as the CHOP regimen, is recommended as it is for other aggressive lymphomas.[94,97] For CD30-positive cases, brentuximab combined with cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, and prednisone is the standard of care.[58][Level of evidence: 1iiD] (Refer to the Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphomasection of this summary for more information.) The International Peripheral T-Cell Lymphoma Project involving 22 international centers identified 243 patients with AITL or ATCL; the 5-year OS and failure-free survival rates were 33% and 18%, respectively.[99] Myeloablative chemotherapy and radiation therapy with autologous or allogeneic peripheral stem cell support has been described in anecdotal reports.[86,100,101] Anecdotal responses have been reported for cyclosporine,[102] pralatrexate,[103] bendamustine,[104] the histone deacetylase inhibitor romidepsin, and brentuximab vedotin (even if there is little or no CD30 expression on the lymphoma).[63,105][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] Occasional spontaneous remissions and protracted responses to steroids only have been reported.

Peripheral T-cell Lymphoma

Patients with peripheral T-cell lymphoma have diffuse large cell or diffuse mixed lymphoma that expresses a cell surface phenotype of a postthymic (or peripheral) T-cell expressing CD4 or CD8 but not both together.[106] Peripheral T-cell lymphoma encompasses a group of heterogeneous nodal T-cell lymphomas that will require future delineation.[71,107] This includes the so-called Lennert lymphoma, a T-cell lymphoma admixed with a preponderance of lymphoepithelioid cells.

Prognosis

Most investigators report worse response and survival rates for patients with peripheral T-cell lymphomas than for patients with comparably staged B-cell aggressive lymphomas.[107,108] Most patients present with multiple adverse prognostic factors (i.e., older age, stage IV, multiple extranodal sites, and elevated LDH), and these patients have a low (<20%) failure-free survival and OS at 5 years.[107,108] As with other lymphomas (e.g., diffuse large B-cell lymphoma or follicular lymphoma), event-free survival at 24 months predicts a 5-year OS of 78%.[109]

Therapeutic approaches

Therapy involves doxorubicin-based combination chemotherapy (such as CHOP or CHOPE [CHOP plus etoposide]), which is also used for DLBCL.[110] For CD30-positive cases, brentuximab combined with cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, and prednisone is the standard of care.[58][Level of evidence: 1iiD] (Refer to the Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphomasection of this summary for more information.) For patients with early-stage disease, anecdotal retrospective series disagree on the value of consolidative radiation therapy after combination chemotherapy.[111][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] Consolidation using high-dose chemotherapy with autologous or allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell support has been applied to patients with advanced-stage peripheral T-cell lymphoma after induction therapy with CHOP-based regimens and after response to reinduction therapy at first relapse. Evidence for this approach is anecdotal.[86,100,112-114] For relapsing patients, pralatrexate has shown a 30% response rate and a median 10-month duration of response for 109 evaluable patients in a prospective trial.[63,115][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] Also for relapsing patients, similar response rates were seen for romidepsin for 130 evaluable patients in a prospective trial.[63][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] Anecdotal responses have been seen with a combination of pralatrexate and romidepsin,[103] single-agent bendamustine,[104] belinostat,[116] and brentuximab vedotin (even if there is little or no CD30 expression on the lymphoma).[105][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] Incorporation of these new agents with CHOP chemotherapy is under clinical evaluation.[58,107] Anecdotal responses have also been seen with alemtuzumab, an anti-CD52 monoclonal antibody, after relapse from previous chemotherapy.[117] The median PFS after first relapse was less than 6 months in one series of 163 patients with peripheral T-cell lymphoma.[118]

An unusual type of peripheral T-cell lymphoma occurring mostly in young men, hepatosplenic T-cell lymphoma, appears to be localized to the hepatic and splenic sinusoids, with cell surface expression of the T-cell receptor gamma/delta.[119-123] Another variant, subcutaneous panniculitis-like T-cell lymphoma, is localized to subcutaneous tissue associated with hemophagocytic syndrome.[124-127] These patients have cells that express alpha-beta phenotype. Those with gamma-delta phenotype have a more aggressive clinical course and are classified as cutaneous gamma-delta T-cell lymphoma.[128-130] These patients may manifest involvement of the epidermis, dermis, subcutaneous region, or mucosa. These entities have extremely poor prognoses with an extremely aggressive clinical course and are treated within the same paradigm as the highest-risk groups with DLBCL.[86] An indolent T-cell lymphoproliferative disease of the gastrointestinal tract must be distinguished from peripheral T-cell lymphoma because no therapy may be indicated.[131]

Enteropathy-type Intestinal T-cell Lymphoma

Enteropathy-type intestinal T-cell lymphoma involves the small bowel of patients with gluten-sensitive enteropathy (celiac sprue).[71,132-134] Because a gluten-free diet prevents the development of lymphoma, patients diagnosed with celiac sprue in childhood rarely develop lymphoma. The diagnosis of celiac disease is usually made by finding villous atrophy in the resected intestine. Surgery is often required for diagnosis and to avoid perforation during therapy.

Therapy is with doxorubicin-based combination chemotherapy, but relapse rates appear higher than for comparably staged diffuse large cell lymphoma.[133-135] Complications of treatment include gastrointestinal bleeding, small bowel perforation, and enterocolic fistulae; patients often require parenteral nutrition. (Refer to the PDQ summaries on Gastrointestinal Complications and Nutrition in Cancer Care for more information on parenteral nutrition.) Multifocal intestinal perforations and visceral abdominal involvement are seen at the time of relapse. High-dose therapy with hematopoietic stem cell rescue has been applied in first remission or at relapse.[86,133,136][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiii] Evidence for this approach is anecdotal.

Intravascular Large B-cell Lymphoma (Intravascular Lymphomatosis)

Intravascular lymphomatosis is characterized by large cell lymphoma confined to the intravascular lumen. The brain, kidneys, lungs, and skin are the organs most likely affected by intravascular lymphomatosis.

With the use of aggressive combination chemotherapy, the prognosis is similar to more conventional presentations.[137,138]

Burkitt Lymphoma/Diffuse Small Noncleaved-cell Lymphoma

Burkitt lymphoma/diffuse small noncleaved-cell lymphoma typically involves younger patients and represents the most common type of pediatric NHL.[139] These types of aggressive extranodal B-cell lymphomas are characterized by translocation and deregulation of the C-Myc gene on chromosome 8.[140] A subgroup of patients with dual translocation of C-Myc and BCL2 appear to have an extremely poor outcome despite aggressive therapy (5-month OS).[141][Level of evidence: 3iiiA]

In some patients with larger B cells, there is morphologic overlap with DLBCL. These Burkitt-like large cell lymphomas show C-Myc deregulation, extremely high proliferation rates, and a gene-expression profile as expected for classic Burkitt lymphoma.[142-144] Endemic cases, usually from Africa, involve the facial bones or jaws of children, mostly containing EBV genomes. Sporadic cases usually involve the gastrointestinal system, ovaries, or kidneys. Patients present with rapidly growing masses and a very high LDH but are potentially curable with intensive doxorubicin-based combination chemotherapy.

Therapeutic approaches

Treatment of Burkitt lymphoma/diffuse small noncleaved-cell lymphoma involves aggressive multidrug regimens in combination with rituximab, similar to those used for the advanced-stage aggressive lymphomas (diffuse large cell).[145-148] Aggressive combination chemotherapy, which is patterned after that used in childhood Burkitt lymphoma, has been very successful for adult patients with more than 60% of advanced-stage patients free of disease at 5 years.[149-152] Adverse prognostic factors include bulky abdominal disease and high serum LDH. Patients with Burkitt lymphoma have a 20% to 30% lifetime risk of CNS involvement. Prophylaxis with intrathecal chemotherapy is required as part of induction therapy.[153] Patients with HIV-associated Burkitt lymphoma also benefit from less-toxic modification of the aggressive multidrug regimens in combination with rituximab.[154][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] (Refer to the PDQ summaries on Primary CNS Lymphoma Treatment and AIDS-Related Lymphoma Treatment for more information.)

Lymphoblastic Lymphoma

Lymphoblastic lymphoma (precursor T-cell) is a very aggressive form of NHL. It often, but not exclusively, occurs in young patients.[155] It is commonly associated with large mediastinal masses and has a high predilection for disseminating to bone marrow and the CNS.

Treatment is usually patterned after that for acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Intensive combination chemotherapy with or without bone marrow transplantation is the standard treatment for this aggressive histologic type of NHL.[156-158] Radiation therapy is sometimes given to areas of bulky tumor masses. Because these forms of NHL tend to progress quickly, combination chemotherapy is instituted rapidly once the diagnosis has been confirmed. Careful review of the pathologic specimens, bone marrow aspirate, biopsy specimen, cerebrospinal fluid cytology, and lymphocyte marker constitute the most important aspects of the pretreatment staging workup. (Refer to the PDQ summary on Adult Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Treatment for more information.)

Adult T-cell Leukemia/Lymphoma

Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATL) is caused by infection with the retrovirus human T-lymphotrophic virus 1 and is frequently associated with lymphadenopathy, hypercalcemia, circulating leukemic cells, bone and skin involvement, hepatosplenomegaly, a rapidly progressive course, and poor response to combination chemotherapy.[159,160] ATL has been divided into four clinical subtypes:[161,162]

Acute (aggressive course with leukemia, with or without extranodal or nodal involvement).
Lymphoma (aggressive course with lymphadenopathy and no leukemia).
Chronic (indolent course with leukemia and lymphadenopathy).
Smoldering (indolent course with only leukemia).

The acute and lymphoma types of ATL have done poorly with strategies of combination chemotherapy and allogeneic SCT with a median OS under 1 year.[163-165] Using combination chemotherapy, less than 10% of 807 patients were alive after 4 years.[165] Anecdotal durable remissions have been reported after allogeneic SCT and even after subsequent donor lymphocyte infusion for relapses after transplant.[166][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] Among 815 patients who underwent allogeneic SCT in two retrospective reviews, the 3-year OS rates were 36% and 26%.[167,168][Level of evidence: 3iiiA]

The combination of zidovudine and interferon-alpha has activity against ATL, even for patients who failed previous cytotoxic therapy. Durable remissions are seen in the majority of presenting patients with this combination but are not seen in patients with the lymphoma subtype of ATL.[169-173] In a multicenter phase II study of 26 relapsed patients, 42% responded to lenalidomide (including four CR).[174][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] Symptomatic local progression of all subtypes responds well to palliative radiation therapy.[175] For CD30-positive cases, brentuximab combined with cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, and prednisone is the standard of care.[58][Level of evidence: 1iiD] (Refer to the Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma section of this summary for more information.)

Mantle Cell Lymphoma

Mantle cell lymphoma is found in lymph nodes, the spleen, bone marrow, blood, and sometimes the gastrointestinal system (lymphomatous polyposis).[176] Mantle cell lymphoma is characterized by CD5-positive follicular mantle B cells, a translocation of chromosomes 11 and 14, and an overexpression of the cyclin D1 protein.[176] Mantle cell lymphoma may be divided into two clinical subtypes: a classical version with lymphadenopathy with high SOX-11 expression that manifests with an aggressive clinical course and a worse prognosis versus a leukemic, non-nodal version with low SOX-11 expression and a more indolent course and a better prognosis.[177] There is frequent overlap on presentation with these subtypes, and the therapeutic implication remains unclear. However, both of these versions can converge later in their course into a blastoid phenotype or treatment-resistant phenotype due to genomic instability and selection.[178]

Like the low-grade lymphomas, mantle cell lymphoma appears incurable with anthracycline-based chemotherapy and occurs in older patients with generally asymptomatic advanced-stage disease. The median survival, however, is significantly shorter (5–7 years) than that of other lymphomas, and this histology is now considered to be an aggressive lymphoma.[179] A diffuse pattern and the blastoid variant have an aggressive course with shorter survival, while the mantle zone type may have a more indolent course.[180] A high cell-proliferation rate (increased Ki-67, mitotic index, beta-2-microglobulin) may be associated with a poorer prognosis.[181,182]

Therapeutic approaches

Asymptomatic patients with low-risk scores on the IPI may do well when initial therapy is deferred.[183,184][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] There is no standard approach to mantle cell lymphoma. Several induction chemotherapy regimens may be employed for symptomatic progressing disease. These regimens range in intensity from rituximab alone to rituximab plus bendamustine, to R-CHOP, to high-dose intensive regimens such as R-hyper C-VAD (hyperfractionated cyclophosphamide, vincristine, doxorubicin, and dexamethasone alternating with methotrexate and cytarabine). Some physicians use autologous SCT or allogeneic SCT consolidation next, while others prefer rituximab maintenance, reserving high-dose consolidation for a later time.[185] Ibrutinib, lenalidomide, and bortezomib have shown activity in relapsing patients, and these drugs are being incorporated upfront.[186-190]

It is unclear which therapeutic approach offers the best long-term survival in this clinicopathologic entity. In a prospective randomized trial, 532 patients older than 60 years and not eligible for SCT were given either R-CHOP or R-FC (rituximab, fludarabine, cyclophosphamide) for six to eight cycles, followed by maintenance therapy in responders randomly assigned to rituximab or interferon-alpha maintenance therapy.[191] With a median follow-up of 37 months, the OS was significantly shorter after R-FC than after R-CHOP (47% vs. 62%, P = .005; HRdeath, 1.50; 95% CI, 1.13–1.99).[191][Level of evidence: 1iiA] Event-free survival favored rituximab over interferon-alpha (57% PFS at 4 years vs. 34%, P = .01; HR, 0.55; 95% CI, 0.36–0.87), but OS did not differ significantly (79% vs. 67% at 4 years, P= .13).[191][Level of evidence: 1iiDi] However, patients who received R-CHOP induction showed an OS benefit for rituximab maintenance over interferon-alpha maintenance (87% vs. 63% at 4 years, P = .005).[191][Level of evidence: 3iiiA] A randomized trial compared bendamustine plus rituximab (BR) with R-CHOP and showed improved PFS (35 vs. 22 months; HR, 0.49; 95% CI, 0.28–0.79; P = .004) but no difference in OS.[192][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii] However, this trial failed to show any benefit for rituximab maintenance after BR. A prospective, randomized trial of 487 patients compared VR-CAP (bortezomib, rituximab, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, prednisone) with R-CHOP.[193] With a median follow-up of 40 months, the median PFS favored VR-CAP (24.7 months vs. 14.4 months, HR, 0.63; P <.001), but the 4-year OS was not significantly different (64% vs. 54%, P = .17).[193][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii]

A prospective randomized trial of 497 patients younger than 65 years compared six cycles of R-CHOP to six cycles of alternating R-CHOP and R-DHAP (rituximab, dexamethasone, cytarabine, and cisplatin), with both groups then receiving autologous SCT.[194][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii] With a median follow-up of 6.1 years, the time to treatment failure (TTF) was longer in the cytarabine group, with a median TTF follow-up of 9.1 years (95% CI, 6.3 years to not reached) compared with 3.9 years (95% CI, 3.2‒4.4 years) (HR, 0.56; corrected P= .038) for the control group. Despite this surprising difference in TTF, the OS was not different.

Many investigators are exploring high-dose chemoradiation immunotherapy with stem cell/bone marrow support or nonmyeloablative allogeneic SCT.[195-200] Thus far, randomized trials have not shown OS benefits from these newer approaches.[196]

In a prospective trial (NCT00921414) of 299 patients who were previously untreated for mantle cell lymphoma, 257 responders received four courses of R-DHAP and autologous SCT. The patients were randomly assigned to receive rituximab maintenance therapy for 3 years versus no maintenance therapy. After randomization, a median follow-up at 50.2 months showed the rate of PFS at 4-years favored the rituximab-maintenance arm at 83% (95% CI, 73%–88%) versus the no-maintenance arm at 64% (95% CI, 55%–73%; P < .001). The 4-year OS rate also favored the rituximab-maintenance arm at 89% (95% CI, 81%–94%) versus the no-maintenance arm at 80% (95% CI, 72%–88%; P = .04).[201][Level of evidence: 1iiA]

Lenalidomide with or without rituximab also shows response rates of around 50% in relapsed patients, with even higher response rates for previously untreated patients.[187,190,202,203][Level of evidence: 3iiDiv]

The B-cell receptor-inhibitor, ibrutinib, showed a response rate of 86% (21% CR rate) in previously treated patients with a median PFS time of 14 months.[188][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] In a prospective randomized trial of 280 patients with relapsed/refractory mantle cell lymphoma, patients received either ibrutinib or temsirolimus.[204] With a median follow-up of 15 months, the median PFS favored ibrutinib (14.6 months vs. 6.2 months; HR, 0.43; 95% CI, 0.32–0.58, P < .0001).[204][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii] Ibrutinib has been combined with another active agent, venetoclax, in a phase II study of 23 patients with relapsed or refractory mantle cell lymphoma.[205] An unprecedented 71% of patients had CR and 78% of responding patients maintained response at 15 months.[205][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv]

Acalabrutinib (another B-cell receptor inhibitor via the Bruton tyrosine kinase pathway) was studied in 124 patients with relapsed/refractory mantle cell lymphoma.[206] In a phase II study, there was an 81% objective response rate, 40% CR rate, and the 1-year PFS rate was 67%.[206][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] Rituximab, lenalidomide, ibrutinib, acalabrutinib, and venetoclax represent directed biologic agents that may lead the way to chemotherapy-free strategies for patients with mantle cell lymphoma.[207]

Posttransplantation Lymphoproliferative Disorder

Patients who undergo transplantation of the heart, lung, liver, kidney, or pancreas usually require lifelong immunosuppression. This may result in posttransplantation lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) in 1% to 3% of recipients, which appears as an aggressive lymphoma.[208] Pathologists can distinguish a polyclonal B-cell hyperplasia from a monoclonal B-cell lymphoma; both are almost always associated with EBV.[209]

Prognosis

Poor performance status, grafted organ involvement, high IPI, elevated LDH, and multiple sites of disease are poor prognostic factors for PTLD.[210,211]

Therapeutic options

In some cases, withdrawal of immunosuppression results in eradication of the lymphoma.[212,213] When this is unsuccessful or not feasible, a course of rituximab may be considered, because it has shown durable remissions in approximately 60% of patients and a favorable toxicity profile.[212,214,215] If these measures fail, doxorubicin-based combination chemotherapy (R-CHOP) is recommended, although some patients can avoid cytotoxic therapy.[215,216] Localized presentations can be controlled with surgery or radiation therapy alone. These localized mass lesions, which may grow over a period of months, are often phenotypically polyclonal and tend to occur within weeks or a few months after transplantation.[209] Multifocal, rapidly progressive disease occurs late after transplantation (>1 year) and is usually phenotypically monoclonal and associated with EBV.[217] These patients may have durable remissions using standard chemotherapy regimens for aggressive lymphoma.[217-219] Instances of EBV-negative PTLD occur even later (median, 5 years posttransplant) and have a worse prognosis; R-CHOP chemotherapy can be applied directly in this circumstance.[220] A sustained clinical response after failure from chemotherapy was attained using an immunotoxin (anti-CD22 B-cell surface antigen antibody linked with ricin, a plant toxin).[221] An anti-interleukin-6 monoclonal antibody is also under clinical evaluation.[222]

True Histiocytic Lymphoma

True histiocytic lymphomas are very rare tumors that show histiocytic differentiation and express histiocytic markers in the absence of B-cell or T-cell lineage-specific immunologic markers.[223,224] Care must be taken with immunophenotypic tests to exclude ALCL or hemophagocytic syndromes caused by viral infections, especially EBV.

Therapeutic options

Therapy is modeled after the treatment of comparably staged diffuse large cell lymphomas, but the optimal approach remains to be defined.

Primary Effusion Lymphoma

Primary effusion lymphoma presents exclusively or mainly in the pleural, pericardial, or abdominal cavities in the absence of an identifiable tumor mass.[225] Patients are usually HIV seropositive, and the tumor usually contains Kaposi sarcoma–associated herpes virus/human herpes virus 8.[226]

Prognosis

The prognosis of primary effusion lymphoma is extremely poor.

Therapeutic approaches

Therapy is usually modeled after the treatment of comparably staged diffuse large cell lymphomas.

Plasmablastic Lymphoma

Plasmablastic lymphoma is most often seen in patients with HIV infection and is characterized by CD20-negative large B cells with plasmacytic features. This type of lymphoma has a very aggressive clinical course, including poor responses and short remissions with standard chemotherapy.[227] Anecdotal reports suggest using aggressive chemotherapy for Burkitt or lymphoblastic lymphoma, followed by SCT consolidation in responding patients, when feasible.[227-229]

References

Armitage JO, Weisenburger DD: New approach to classifying non-Hodgkin's lymphomas: clinical features of the major histologic subtypes. Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Classification Project. J Clin Oncol 16 (8): 2780-95, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
Delabie J, Vandenberghe E, Kennes C, et al.: Histiocyte-rich B-cell lymphoma. A distinct clinicopathologic entity possibly related to lymphocyte predominant Hodgkin's disease, paragranuloma subtype. Am J Surg Pathol 16 (1): 37-48, 1992. [PUBMED Abstract]
Achten R, Verhoef G, Vanuytsel L, et al.: T-cell/histiocyte-rich large B-cell lymphoma: a distinct clinicopathologic entity. J Clin Oncol 20 (5): 1269-77, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
Bouabdallah R, Mounier N, Guettier C, et al.: T-cell/histiocyte-rich large B-cell lymphomas and classical diffuse large B-cell lymphomas have similar outcome after chemotherapy: a matched-control analysis. J Clin Oncol 21 (7): 1271-7, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
Ghesquières H, Berger F, Felman P, et al.: Clinicopathologic characteristics and outcome of diffuse large B-cell lymphomas presenting with an associated low-grade component at diagnosis. J Clin Oncol 24 (33): 5234-41, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
Miller TP, Dahlberg S, Cassady JR, et al.: Chemotherapy alone compared with chemotherapy plus radiotherapy for localized intermediate- and high-grade non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. N Engl J Med 339 (1): 21-6, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
Coiffier B, Lepage E, Briere J, et al.: CHOP chemotherapy plus rituximab compared with CHOP alone in elderly patients with diffuse large-B-cell lymphoma. N Engl J Med 346 (4): 235-42, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
Coiffier B: State-of-the-art therapeutics: diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 23 (26): 6387-93, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
Habermann TM, Weller EA, Morrison VA, et al.: Rituximab-CHOP versus CHOP alone or with maintenance rituximab in older patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 24 (19): 3121-7, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
Zhou Z, Sehn LH, Rademaker AW, et al.: An enhanced International Prognostic Index (NCCN-IPI) for patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma treated in the rituximab era. Blood 123 (6): 837-42, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
Møller MB, Christensen BE, Pedersen NT: Prognosis of localized diffuse large B-cell lymphoma in younger patients. Cancer 98 (3): 516-21, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
Maurer MJ, Ghesquières H, Link BK, et al.: Diagnosis-to-Treatment Interval Is an Important Clinical Factor in Newly Diagnosed Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma and Has Implication for Bias in Clinical Trials. J Clin Oncol 36 (16): 1603-1610, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
Scott DW, King RL, Staiger AM, et al.: High-grade B-cell lymphoma with MYC and BCL2 and/or BCL6 rearrangements with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma morphology. Blood 131 (18): 2060-2064, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
Horn H, Ziepert M, Becher C, et al.: MYC status in concert with BCL2 and BCL6 expression predicts outcome in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Blood 121 (12): 2253-63, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
Staiger AM, Ziepert M, Horn H, et al.: Clinical Impact of the Cell-of-Origin Classification and the MYC/ BCL2 Dual Expresser Status in Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma Treated Within Prospective Clinical Trials of the German High-Grade Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Study Group. J Clin Oncol 35 (22): 2515-2526, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
Howlett C, Snedecor SJ, Landsburg DJ, et al.: Front-line, dose-escalated immunochemotherapy is associated with a significant progression-free survival advantage in patients with double-hit lymphomas: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Haematol 170 (4): 504-14, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
Sesques P, Johnson NA: Approach to the diagnosis and treatment of high-grade B-cell lymphomas with MYC and BCL2 and/or BCL6 rearrangements. Blood 129 (3): 280-288, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
Landsburg DJ, Falkiewicz MK, Maly J, et al.: Outcomes of Patients With Double-Hit Lymphoma Who Achieve First Complete Remission. J Clin Oncol 35 (20): 2260-2267, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
Herrera AF, Mei M, Low L, et al.: Relapsed or Refractory Double-Expressor and Double-Hit Lymphomas Have Inferior Progression-Free Survival After Autologous Stem-Cell Transplantation. J Clin Oncol 35 (1): 24-31, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
Canellos GP: CHOP may have been part of the beginning but certainly not the end: issues in risk-related therapy of large-cell lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 15 (5): 1713-6, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
Lossos IS, Czerwinski DK, Alizadeh AA, et al.: Prediction of survival in diffuse large-B-cell lymphoma based on the expression of six genes. N Engl J Med 350 (18): 1828-37, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
Abramson JS, Shipp MA: Advances in the biology and therapy of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma: moving toward a molecularly targeted approach. Blood 106 (4): 1164-74, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
de Jong D, Rosenwald A, Chhanabhai M, et al.: Immunohistochemical prognostic markers in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma: validation of tissue microarray as a prerequisite for broad clinical applications--a study from the Lunenburg Lymphoma Biomarker Consortium. J Clin Oncol 25 (7): 805-12, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
Fu K, Weisenburger DD, Choi WW, et al.: Addition of rituximab to standard chemotherapy improves the survival of both the germinal center B-cell-like and non-germinal center B-cell-like subtypes of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 26 (28): 4587-94, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
Lenz G, Staudt LM: Aggressive lymphomas. N Engl J Med 362 (15): 1417-29, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
Schmitz R, Wright GW, Huang DW, et al.: Genetics and Pathogenesis of Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma. N Engl J Med 378 (15): 1396-1407, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
Hu S, Xu-Monette ZY, Balasubramanyam A, et al.: CD30 expression defines a novel subgroup of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma with favorable prognosis and distinct gene expression signature: a report from the International DLBCL Rituximab-CHOP Consortium Program Study. Blood 121 (14): 2715-24, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
Maurer MJ, Ghesquières H, Jais JP, et al.: Event-free survival at 24 months is a robust end point for disease-related outcome in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma treated with immunochemotherapy. J Clin Oncol 32 (10): 1066-73, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
Glantz MJ, Cole BF, Recht L, et al.: High-dose intravenous methotrexate for patients with nonleukemic leptomeningeal cancer: is intrathecal chemotherapy necessary? J Clin Oncol 16 (4): 1561-7, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
Fisher RI, Gaynor ER, Dahlberg S, et al.: Comparison of a standard regimen (CHOP) with three intensive chemotherapy regimens for advanced non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. N Engl J Med 328 (14): 1002-6, 1993. [PUBMED Abstract]
Bernstein SH, Unger JM, Leblanc M, et al.: Natural history of CNS relapse in patients with aggressive non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: a 20-year follow-up analysis of SWOG 8516 -- the Southwest Oncology Group. J Clin Oncol 27 (1): 114-9, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
van Besien K, Ha CS, Murphy S, et al.: Risk factors, treatment, and outcome of central nervous system recurrence in adults with intermediate-grade and immunoblastic lymphoma. Blood 91 (4): 1178-84, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
Schmitz N, Zeynalova S, Nickelsen M, et al.: CNS International Prognostic Index: A Risk Model for CNS Relapse in Patients With Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma Treated With R-CHOP. J Clin Oncol 34 (26): 3150-6, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
Villa D, Connors JM, Shenkier TN, et al.: Incidence and risk factors for central nervous system relapse in patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma: the impact of the addition of rituximab to CHOP chemotherapy. Ann Oncol 21 (5): 1046-52, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
Boehme V, Schmitz N, Zeynalova S, et al.: CNS events in elderly patients with aggressive lymphoma treated with modern chemotherapy (CHOP-14) with or without rituximab: an analysis of patients treated in the RICOVER-60 trial of the German High-Grade Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Study Group (DSHNHL). Blood 113 (17): 3896-902, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
Ferreri AJ, Donadoni G, Cabras MG, et al.: High Doses of Antimetabolites Followed by High-Dose Sequential Chemoimmunotherapy and Autologous Stem-Cell Transplantation in Patients With Systemic B-Cell Lymphoma and Secondary CNS Involvement: Final Results of a Multicenter Phase II Trial. J Clin Oncol 33 (33): 3903-10, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
Schmitz N, Wu HS: Advances in the Treatment of Secondary CNS Lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 33 (33): 3851-3, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
van Besien K, Kelta M, Bahaguna P: Primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma: a review of pathology and management. J Clin Oncol 19 (6): 1855-64, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
Dunleavy K, Wilson WH: Primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma and mediastinal gray zone lymphoma: do they require a unique therapeutic approach? Blood 125 (1): 33-9, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
Dunleavy K, Pittaluga S, Maeda LS, et al.: Dose-adjusted EPOCH-rituximab therapy in primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma. N Engl J Med 368 (15): 1408-16, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
Savage KJ, Yenson PR, Shenkier T, et al.: The outcome of primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma in the R-CHOP treatment era. [Abstract] Blood 120 (21): A-303, 2012.
Vassilakopoulos TP, Pangalis GA, Katsigiannis A, et al.: Rituximab, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone with or without radiotherapy in primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma: the emerging standard of care. Oncologist 17 (2): 239-49, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
Rieger M, Osterborg A, Pettengell R, et al.: Primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma treated with CHOP-like chemotherapy with or without rituximab: results of the Mabthera International Trial Group study. Ann Oncol 22 (3): 664-70, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
Martelli M, Ceriani L, Zucca E, et al.: [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography predicts survival after chemoimmunotherapy for primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma: results of the International Extranodal Lymphoma Study Group IELSG-26 Study. J Clin Oncol 32 (17): 1769-75, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
Zinzani PL, Broccoli A, Casadei B, et al.: The role of rituximab and positron emission tomography in the treatment of primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma: experience on 74 patients. Hematol Oncol 33 (4): 145-50, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
Ceriani L, Martelli M, Conconi A, et al.: Prognostic models for primary mediastinal (thymic) B-cell lymphoma derived from 18-FDG PET/CT quantitative parameters in the International Extranodal Lymphoma Study Group (IELSG) 26 study. Br J Haematol 178 (4): 588-591, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
Dabaja BS, Hoppe BS, Plastaras JP, et al.: Proton therapy for adults with mediastinal lymphomas: the International Lymphoma Radiation Oncology Group guidelines. Blood 132 (16): 1635-1646, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
Longo DL: What's the deal with follicular lymphomas? J Clin Oncol 11 (2): 202-8, 1993. [PUBMED Abstract]
Anderson JR, Vose JM, Bierman PJ, et al.: Clinical features and prognosis of follicular large-cell lymphoma: a report from the Nebraska Lymphoma Study Group. J Clin Oncol 11 (2): 218-24, 1993. [PUBMED Abstract]
Bartlett NL, Rizeq M, Dorfman RF, et al.: Follicular large-cell lymphoma: intermediate or low grade? J Clin Oncol 12 (7): 1349-57, 1994. [PUBMED Abstract]
Wendum D, Sebban C, Gaulard P, et al.: Follicular large-cell lymphoma treated with intensive chemotherapy: an analysis of 89 cases included in the LNH87 trial and comparison with the outcome of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Groupe d'Etude des Lymphomes de l'Adulte. J Clin Oncol 15 (4): 1654-63, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
Hans CP, Weisenburger DD, Vose JM, et al.: A significant diffuse component predicts for inferior survival in grade 3 follicular lymphoma, but cytologic subtypes do not predict survival. Blood 101 (6): 2363-7, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
Vose JM, Bierman PJ, Lynch JC, et al.: Effect of follicularity on autologous transplantation for large-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 16 (3): 844-9, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
Hapgood G, Savage KJ: The biology and management of systemic anaplastic large cell lymphoma. Blood 126 (1): 17-25, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
Bai RY, Ouyang T, Miething C, et al.: Nucleophosmin-anaplastic lymphoma kinase associated with anaplastic large-cell lymphoma activates the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt antiapoptotic signaling pathway. Blood 96 (13): 4319-27, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
Gascoyne RD, Aoun P, Wu D, et al.: Prognostic significance of anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) protein expression in adults with anaplastic large cell lymphoma. Blood 93 (11): 3913-21, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
Sibon D, Fournier M, Brière J, et al.: Long-term outcome of adults with systemic anaplastic large-cell lymphoma treated within the Groupe d'Etude des Lymphomes de l'Adulte trials. J Clin Oncol 30 (32): 3939-46, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
Horwitz S, O'Connor OA, Pro B, et al.: Brentuximab vedotin with chemotherapy for CD30-positive peripheral T-cell lymphoma (ECHELON-2): a global, double-blind, randomised, phase 3 trial. Lancet : , 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
Younes A, Bartlett NL, Leonard JP, et al.: Brentuximab vedotin (SGN-35) for relapsed CD30-positive lymphomas. N Engl J Med 363 (19): 1812-21, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
Pro B, Advani R, Brice P, et al.: Brentuximab vedotin (SGN-35) in patients with relapsed or refractory systemic anaplastic large-cell lymphoma: results of a phase II study. J Clin Oncol 30 (18): 2190-6, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
Prince HM, Kim YH, Horwitz SM, et al.: Brentuximab vedotin or physician's choice in CD30-positive cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (ALCANZA): an international, open-label, randomised, phase 3, multicentre trial. Lancet 390 (10094): 555-566, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
Pro B, Advani R, Brice P, et al.: Five-year results of brentuximab vedotin in patients with relapsed or refractory systemic anaplastic large cell lymphoma. Blood 130 (25): 2709-2717, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
Coiffier B, Pro B, Prince HM, et al.: Results from a pivotal, open-label, phase II study of romidepsin in relapsed or refractory peripheral T-cell lymphoma after prior systemic therapy. J Clin Oncol 30 (6): 631-6, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
O'Connor OA, Horwitz S, Hamlin P, et al.: Phase II-I-II study of two different doses and schedules of pralatrexate, a high-affinity substrate for the reduced folate carrier, in patients with relapsed or refractory lymphoma reveals marked activity in T-cell malignancies. J Clin Oncol 27 (26): 4357-64, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
Smith SM, Burns LJ, van Besien K, et al.: Hematopoietic cell transplantation for systemic mature T-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 31 (25): 3100-9, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
Seidemann K, Tiemann M, Schrappe M, et al.: Short-pulse B-non-Hodgkin lymphoma-type chemotherapy is efficacious treatment for pediatric anaplastic large cell lymphoma: a report of the Berlin-Frankfurt-Münster Group Trial NHL-BFM 90. Blood 97 (12): 3699-706, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
Miranda RN, Aladily TN, Prince HM, et al.: Breast implant-associated anaplastic large-cell lymphoma: long-term follow-up of 60 patients. J Clin Oncol 32 (2): 114-20, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
Clemens MW, Medeiros LJ, Butler CE, et al.: Complete Surgical Excision Is Essential for the Management of Patients With Breast Implant-Associated Anaplastic Large-Cell Lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 34 (2): 160-8, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
Mehta-Shah N, Clemens MW, Horwitz SM: How I treat breast implant-associated anaplastic large cell lymphoma. Blood 132 (18): 1889-1898, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
Tse E, Kwong YL: How I treat NK/T-cell lymphomas. Blood 121 (25): 4997-5005, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
Rizvi MA, Evens AM, Tallman MS, et al.: T-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Blood 107 (4): 1255-64, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
Li YX, Yao B, Jin J, et al.: Radiotherapy as primary treatment for stage IE and IIE nasal natural killer/T-cell lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 24 (1): 181-9, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
Lee J, Suh C, Park YH, et al.: Extranodal natural killer T-cell lymphoma, nasal-type: a prognostic model from a retrospective multicenter study. J Clin Oncol 24 (4): 612-8, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
Li CC, Tien HF, Tang JL, et al.: Treatment outcome and pattern of failure in 77 patients with sinonasal natural killer/T-cell or T-cell lymphoma. Cancer 100 (2): 366-75, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
Yamaguchi M, Tobinai K, Oguchi M, et al.: Phase I/II study of concurrent chemoradiotherapy for localized nasal natural killer/T-cell lymphoma: Japan Clinical Oncology Group Study JCOG0211. J Clin Oncol 27 (33): 5594-600, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
Kim SJ, Kim K, Kim BS, et al.: Phase II trial of concurrent radiation and weekly cisplatin followed by VIPD chemotherapy in newly diagnosed, stage IE to IIE, nasal, extranodal NK/T-Cell Lymphoma: Consortium for Improving Survival of Lymphoma study. J Clin Oncol 27 (35): 6027-32, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
Li YX, Fang H, Liu QF, et al.: Clinical features and treatment outcome of nasal-type NK/T-cell lymphoma of Waldeyer ring. Blood 112 (8): 3057-64, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
Vargo JA, Patel A, Glaser SM, et al.: The impact of the omission or inadequate dosing of radiotherapy in extranodal natural killer T-cell lymphoma, nasal type, in the United States. Cancer 123 (16): 3176-3185, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
Yamaguchi M, Suzuki R, Oguchi M: Advances in the treatment of extranodal NK/T-cell lymphoma, nasal type. Blood 131 (23): 2528-2540, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
Yang Y, Cao JZ, Lan SM, et al.: Association of Improved Locoregional Control With Prolonged Survival in Early-Stage Extranodal Nasal-Type Natural Killer/T-Cell Lymphoma. JAMA Oncol 3 (1): 83-91, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
Yang Y, Zhu Y, Cao JZ, et al.: Risk-adapted therapy for early-stage extranodal nasal-type NK/T-cell lymphoma: analysis from a multicenter study. Blood 126 (12): 1424-32; quiz 1517, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
Yamaguchi M, Suzuki R, Oguchi M, et al.: Treatments and Outcomes of Patients With Extranodal Natural Killer/T-Cell Lymphoma Diagnosed Between 2000 and 2013: A Cooperative Study in Japan. J Clin Oncol 35 (1): 32-39, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
Liang R, Todd D, Chan TK, et al.: Treatment outcome and prognostic factors for primary nasal lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 13 (3): 666-70, 1995. [PUBMED Abstract]
Cheung MM, Chan JK, Lau WH, et al.: Primary non-Hodgkin's lymphoma of the nose and nasopharynx: clinical features, tumor immunophenotype, and treatment outcome in 113 patients. J Clin Oncol 16 (1): 70-7, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
Hausdorff J, Davis E, Long G, et al.: Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma of the paranasal sinuses: clinical and pathological features, and response to combined-modality therapy. Cancer J Sci Am 3 (5): 303-11, 1997 Sep-Oct. [PUBMED Abstract]
Le Gouill S, Milpied N, Buzyn A, et al.: Graft-versus-lymphoma effect for aggressive T-cell lymphomas in adults: a study by the Société Francaise de Greffe de Moëlle et de Thérapie Cellulaire. J Clin Oncol 26 (14): 2264-71, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
Au WY, Weisenburger DD, Intragumtornchai T, et al.: Clinical differences between nasal and extranasal natural killer/T-cell lymphoma: a study of 136 cases from the International Peripheral T-Cell Lymphoma Project. Blood 113 (17): 3931-7, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
Jaccard A, Gachard N, Marin B, et al.: Efficacy of L-asparaginase with methotrexate and dexamethasone (AspaMetDex regimen) in patients with refractory or relapsing extranodal NK/T-cell lymphoma, a phase 2 study. Blood 117 (6): 1834-9, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
Yamaguchi M, Kwong YL, Kim WS, et al.: Phase II study of SMILE chemotherapy for newly diagnosed stage IV, relapsed, or refractory extranodal natural killer (NK)/T-cell lymphoma, nasal type: the NK-Cell Tumor Study Group study. J Clin Oncol 29 (33): 4410-6, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
Mraz-Gernhard S, Natkunam Y, Hoppe RT, et al.: Natural killer/natural killer-like T-cell lymphoma, CD56+, presenting in the skin: an increasingly recognized entity with an aggressive course. J Clin Oncol 19 (8): 2179-88, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
Mansoor A, Pittaluga S, Beck PL, et al.: NK-cell enteropathy: a benign NK-cell lymphoproliferative disease mimicking intestinal lymphoma: clinicopathologic features and follow-up in a unique case series. Blood 117 (5): 1447-52, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
Guinee D Jr, Jaffe E, Kingma D, et al.: Pulmonary lymphomatoid granulomatosis. Evidence for a proliferation of Epstein-Barr virus infected B-lymphocytes with a prominent T-cell component and vasculitis. Am J Surg Pathol 18 (8): 753-64, 1994. [PUBMED Abstract]
Myers JL, Kurtin PJ, Katzenstein AL, et al.: Lymphomatoid granulomatosis. Evidence of immunophenotypic diversity and relationship to Epstein-Barr virus infection. Am J Surg Pathol 19 (11): 1300-12, 1995. [PUBMED Abstract]
Siegert W, Agthe A, Griesser H, et al.: Treatment of angioimmunoblastic lymphadenopathy (AILD)-type T-cell lymphoma using prednisone with or without the COPBLAM/IMVP-16 regimen. A multicenter study. Kiel Lymphoma Study Group. Ann Intern Med 117 (5): 364-70, 1992. [PUBMED Abstract]
Jaffe ES: Angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma: new insights, but the clinical challenge remains. Ann Oncol 6 (7): 631-2, 1995. [PUBMED Abstract]
Siegert W, Nerl C, Agthe A, et al.: Angioimmunoblastic lymphadenopathy (AILD)-type T-cell lymphoma: prognostic impact of clinical observations and laboratory findings at presentation. The Kiel Lymphoma Study Group. Ann Oncol 6 (7): 659-64, 1995. [PUBMED Abstract]
Lunning MA, Vose JM: Angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma: the many-faced lymphoma. Blood 129 (9): 1095-1102, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
Bräuninger A, Spieker T, Willenbrock K, et al.: Survival and clonal expansion of mutating "forbidden" (immunoglobulin receptor-deficient) epstein-barr virus-infected b cells in angioimmunoblastic t cell lymphoma. J Exp Med 194 (7): 927-40, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
Federico M, Rudiger T, Bellei M, et al.: Clinicopathologic characteristics of angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma: analysis of the international peripheral T-cell lymphoma project. J Clin Oncol 31 (2): 240-6, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
Reimer P, Rüdiger T, Geissinger E, et al.: Autologous stem-cell transplantation as first-line therapy in peripheral T-cell lymphomas: results of a prospective multicenter study. J Clin Oncol 27 (1): 106-13, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
Kyriakou C, Canals C, Finke J, et al.: Allogeneic stem cell transplantation is able to induce long-term remissions in angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma: a retrospective study from the lymphoma working party of the European group for blood and marrow transplantation. J Clin Oncol 27 (24): 3951-8, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
Advani R, Horwitz S, Zelenetz A, et al.: Angioimmunoblastic T cell lymphoma: treatment experience with cyclosporine. Leuk Lymphoma 48 (3): 521-5, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
Amengual JE, Lichtenstein R, Lue J, et al.: A phase 1 study of romidepsin and pralatrexate reveals marked activity in relapsed and refractory T-cell lymphoma. Blood 131 (4): 397-407, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
Damaj G, Gressin R, Bouabdallah K, et al.: Results from a prospective, open-label, phase II trial of bendamustine in refractory or relapsed T-cell lymphomas: the BENTLY trial. J Clin Oncol 31 (1): 104-10, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
Fanale MA, Horwitz SM, Forero-Torres A, et al.: Five-year outcomes for frontline brentuximab vedotin with CHP for CD30-expressing peripheral T-cell lymphomas. Blood 131 (19): 2120-2124, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
Rüdiger T, Weisenburger DD, Anderson JR, et al.: Peripheral T-cell lymphoma (excluding anaplastic large-cell lymphoma): results from the Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Classification Project. Ann Oncol 13 (1): 140-9, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
Weisenburger DD, Savage KJ, Harris NL, et al.: Peripheral T-cell lymphoma, not otherwise specified: a report of 340 cases from the International Peripheral T-cell Lymphoma Project. Blood 117 (12): 3402-8, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
Sonnen R, Schmidt WP, Müller-Hermelink HK, et al.: The International Prognostic Index determines the outcome of patients with nodal mature T-cell lymphomas. Br J Haematol 129 (3): 366-72, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
Maurer MJ, Ellin F, Srour L, et al.: International Assessment of Event-Free Survival at 24 Months and Subsequent Survival in Peripheral T-Cell Lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 35 (36): 4019-4026, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
Carson KR, Horwitz SM, Pinter-Brown LC, et al.: A prospective cohort study of patients with peripheral T-cell lymphoma in the United States. Cancer 123 (7): 1174-1183, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
Briski R, Feldman AL, Bailey NG, et al.: Survival in patients with limited-stage peripheral T-cell lymphomas. Leuk Lymphoma 56 (6): 1665-70, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
Rodriguez J, Munsell M, Yazji S, et al.: Impact of high-dose chemotherapy on peripheral T-cell lymphomas. J Clin Oncol 19 (17): 3766-70, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
d'Amore F, Relander T, Lauritzsen GF, et al.: Up-front autologous stem-cell transplantation in peripheral T-cell lymphoma: NLG-T-01. J Clin Oncol 30 (25): 3093-9, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
Schmitz N, Lenz G, Stelljes M: Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for T-cell lymphomas. Blood 132 (3): 245-253, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
O'Connor OA, Pro B, Pinter-Brown L, et al.: Pralatrexate in patients with relapsed or refractory peripheral T-cell lymphoma: results from the pivotal PROPEL study. J Clin Oncol 29 (9): 1182-9, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
O'Connor OA, Horwitz S, Masszi T, et al.: Belinostat in Patients With Relapsed or Refractory Peripheral T-Cell Lymphoma: Results of the Pivotal Phase II BELIEF (CLN-19) Study. J Clin Oncol 33 (23): 2492-9, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
Enblad G, Hagberg H, Erlanson M, et al.: A pilot study of alemtuzumab (anti-CD52 monoclonal antibody) therapy for patients with relapsed or chemotherapy-refractory peripheral T-cell lymphomas. Blood 103 (8): 2920-4, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
Mak V, Hamm J, Chhanabhai M, et al.: Survival of patients with peripheral T-cell lymphoma after first relapse or progression: spectrum of disease and rare long-term survivors. J Clin Oncol 31 (16): 1970-6, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
Farcet JP, Gaulard P, Marolleau JP, et al.: Hepatosplenic T-cell lymphoma: sinusal/sinusoidal localization of malignant cells expressing the T-cell receptor gamma delta. Blood 75 (11): 2213-9, 1990. [PUBMED Abstract]
Wong KF, Chan JK, Matutes E, et al.: Hepatosplenic gamma delta T-cell lymphoma. A distinctive aggressive lymphoma type. Am J Surg Pathol 19 (6): 718-26, 1995. [PUBMED Abstract]
François A, Lesesve JF, Stamatoullas A, et al.: Hepatosplenic gamma/delta T-cell lymphoma: a report of two cases in immunocompromised patients, associated with isochromosome 7q. Am J Surg Pathol 21 (7): 781-90, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
Belhadj K, Reyes F, Farcet JP, et al.: Hepatosplenic gammadelta T-cell lymphoma is a rare clinicopathologic entity with poor outcome: report on a series of 21 patients. Blood 102 (13): 4261-9, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
Chanan-Khan A, Islam T, Alam A, et al.: Long-term survival with allogeneic stem cell transplant and donor lymphocyte infusion following salvage therapy with anti-CD52 monoclonal antibody (Campath) in a patient with alpha/beta hepatosplenic T-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Leuk Lymphoma 45 (8): 1673-5, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
Go RS, Wester SM: Immunophenotypic and molecular features, clinical outcomes, treatments, and prognostic factors associated with subcutaneous panniculitis-like T-cell lymphoma: a systematic analysis of 156 patients reported in the literature. Cancer 101 (6): 1404-13, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
Marzano AV, Berti E, Paulli M, et al.: Cytophagic histiocytic panniculitis and subcutaneous panniculitis-like T-cell lymphoma: report of 7 cases. Arch Dermatol 136 (7): 889-96, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
Hoque SR, Child FJ, Whittaker SJ, et al.: Subcutaneous panniculitis-like T-cell lymphoma: a clinicopathological, immunophenotypic and molecular analysis of six patients. Br J Dermatol 148 (3): 516-25, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
Salhany KE, Macon WR, Choi JK, et al.: Subcutaneous panniculitis-like T-cell lymphoma: clinicopathologic, immunophenotypic, and genotypic analysis of alpha/beta and gamma/delta subtypes. Am J Surg Pathol 22 (7): 881-93, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
Massone C, Chott A, Metze D, et al.: Subcutaneous, blastic natural killer (NK), NK/T-cell, and other cytotoxic lymphomas of the skin: a morphologic, immunophenotypic, and molecular study of 50 patients. Am J Surg Pathol 28 (6): 719-35, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
Arnulf B, Copie-Bergman C, Delfau-Larue MH, et al.: Nonhepatosplenic gammadelta T-cell lymphoma: a subset of cytotoxic lymphomas with mucosal or skin localization. Blood 91 (5): 1723-31, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
Toro JR, Liewehr DJ, Pabby N, et al.: Gamma-delta T-cell phenotype is associated with significantly decreased survival in cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. Blood 101 (9): 3407-12, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
Perry AM, Warnke RA, Hu Q, et al.: Indolent T-cell lymphoproliferative disease of the gastrointestinal tract. Blood 122 (22): 3599-606, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
Egan LJ, Walsh SV, Stevens FM, et al.: Celiac-associated lymphoma. A single institution experience of 30 cases in the combination chemotherapy era. J Clin Gastroenterol 21 (2): 123-9, 1995. [PUBMED Abstract]
Gale J, Simmonds PD, Mead GM, et al.: Enteropathy-type intestinal T-cell lymphoma: clinical features and treatment of 31 patients in a single center. J Clin Oncol 18 (4): 795-803, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
Di Sabatino A, Biagi F, Gobbi PG, et al.: How I treat enteropathy-associated T-cell lymphoma. Blood 119 (11): 2458-68, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
Daum S, Ullrich R, Heise W, et al.: Intestinal non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: a multicenter prospective clinical study from the German Study Group on Intestinal non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 21 (14): 2740-6, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
Sieniawski M, Angamuthu N, Boyd K, et al.: Evaluation of enteropathy-associated T-cell lymphoma comparing standard therapies with a novel regimen including autologous stem cell transplantation. Blood 115 (18): 3664-70, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
Shimada K, Matsue K, Yamamoto K, et al.: Retrospective analysis of intravascular large B-cell lymphoma treated with rituximab-containing chemotherapy as reported by the IVL study group in Japan. J Clin Oncol 26 (19): 3189-95, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
Ponzoni M, Ferreri AJ, Campo E, et al.: Definition, diagnosis, and management of intravascular large B-cell lymphoma: proposals and perspectives from an international consensus meeting. J Clin Oncol 25 (21): 3168-73, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
Blum KA, Lozanski G, Byrd JC: Adult Burkitt leukemia and lymphoma. Blood 104 (10): 3009-20, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
Onciu M, Schlette E, Zhou Y, et al.: Secondary chromosomal abnormalities predict outcome in pediatric and adult high-stage Burkitt lymphoma. Cancer 107 (5): 1084-92, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
Macpherson N, Lesack D, Klasa R, et al.: Small noncleaved, non-Burkitt's (Burkit-Like) lymphoma: cytogenetics predict outcome and reflect clinical presentation. J Clin Oncol 17 (5): 1558-67, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
Dave SS, Fu K, Wright GW, et al.: Molecular diagnosis of Burkitt's lymphoma. N Engl J Med 354 (23): 2431-42, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
Hummel M, Bentink S, Berger H, et al.: A biologic definition of Burkitt's lymphoma from transcriptional and genomic profiling. N Engl J Med 354 (23): 2419-30, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
Salaverria I, Siebert R: The gray zone between Burkitt's lymphoma and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma from a genetics perspective. J Clin Oncol 29 (14): 1835-43, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
Thomas DA, Faderl S, O'Brien S, et al.: Chemoimmunotherapy with hyper-CVAD plus rituximab for the treatment of adult Burkitt and Burkitt-type lymphoma or acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Cancer 106 (7): 1569-80, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
Dunleavy K, Pittaluga S, Shovlin M, et al.: Low-intensity therapy in adults with Burkitt's lymphoma. N Engl J Med 369 (20): 1915-25, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
Hoelzer D, Walewski J, Döhner H, et al.: Improved outcome of adult Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia with rituximab and chemotherapy: report of a large prospective multicenter trial. Blood 124 (26): 3870-9, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
Ribrag V, Koscielny S, Bosq J, et al.: Rituximab and dose-dense chemotherapy for adults with Burkitt's lymphoma: a randomised, controlled, open-label, phase 3 trial. Lancet 387 (10036): 2402-11, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
Magrath I, Adde M, Shad A, et al.: Adults and children with small non-cleaved-cell lymphoma have a similar excellent outcome when treated with the same chemotherapy regimen. J Clin Oncol 14 (3): 925-34, 1996. [PUBMED Abstract]
Hoelzer D, Ludwig WD, Thiel E, et al.: Improved outcome in adult B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Blood 87 (2): 495-508, 1996. [PUBMED Abstract]
Lee EJ, Petroni GR, Schiffer CA, et al.: Brief-duration high-intensity chemotherapy for patients with small noncleaved-cell lymphoma or FAB L3 acute lymphocytic leukemia: results of cancer and leukemia group B study 9251. J Clin Oncol 19 (20): 4014-22, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
Mead GM, Sydes MR, Walewski J, et al.: An international evaluation of CODOX-M and CODOX-M alternating with IVAC in adult Burkitt's lymphoma: results of United Kingdom Lymphoma Group LY06 study. Ann Oncol 13 (8): 1264-74, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
Rizzieri DA, Johnson JL, Niedzwiecki D, et al.: Intensive chemotherapy with and without cranial radiation for Burkitt leukemia and lymphoma: final results of Cancer and Leukemia Group B Study 9251. Cancer 100 (7): 1438-48, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
Noy A, Lee JY, Cesarman E, et al.: AMC 048: modified CODOX-M/IVAC-rituximab is safe and effective for HIV-associated Burkitt lymphoma. Blood 126 (2): 160-6, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
Morel P, Lepage E, Brice P, et al.: Prognosis and treatment of lymphoblastic lymphoma in adults: a report on 80 patients. J Clin Oncol 10 (7): 1078-85, 1992. [PUBMED Abstract]
Verdonck LF, Dekker AW, de Gast GC, et al.: Autologous bone marrow transplantation for adult poor-risk lymphoblastic lymphoma in first remission. J Clin Oncol 10 (4): 644-6, 1992. [PUBMED Abstract]
Thomas DA, O'Brien S, Cortes J, et al.: Outcome with the hyper-CVAD regimens in lymphoblastic lymphoma. Blood 104 (6): 1624-30, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
Sweetenham JW, Santini G, Qian W, et al.: High-dose therapy and autologous stem-cell transplantation versus conventional-dose consolidation/maintenance therapy as postremission therapy for adult patients with lymphoblastic lymphoma: results of a randomized trial of the European Group for Blood and Marrow Transplantation and the United Kingdom Lymphoma Group. J Clin Oncol 19 (11): 2927-36, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
Höllsberg P, Hafler DA: Seminars in medicine of the Beth Israel Hospital, Boston. Pathogenesis of diseases induced by human lymphotropic virus type I infection. N Engl J Med 328 (16): 1173-82, 1993. [PUBMED Abstract]
Foss FM, Aquino SL, Ferry JA: Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital. Weekly clinicopathological exercises. Case 10-2003. A 72-year-old man with rapidly progressive leukemia, rash, and multiorgan failure. N Engl J Med 348 (13): 1267-75, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
Shimoyama M: Diagnostic criteria and classification of clinical subtypes of adult T-cell leukaemia-lymphoma. A report from the Lymphoma Study Group (1984-87). Br J Haematol 79 (3): 428-37, 1991. [PUBMED Abstract]
Takasaki Y, Iwanaga M, Imaizumi Y, et al.: Long-term study of indolent adult T-cell leukemia-lymphoma. Blood 115 (22): 4337-43, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
Yamada Y, Tomonaga M, Fukuda H, et al.: A new G-CSF-supported combination chemotherapy, LSG15, for adult T-cell leukaemia-lymphoma: Japan Clinical Oncology Group Study 9303. Br J Haematol 113 (2): 375-82, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
Fukushima T, Miyazaki Y, Honda S, et al.: Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation provides sustained long-term survival for patients with adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma. Leukemia 19 (5): 829-34, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
Katsuya H, Yamanaka T, Ishitsuka K, et al.: Prognostic index for acute- and lymphoma-type adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 30 (14): 1635-40, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
Itonaga H, Tsushima H, Taguchi J, et al.: Treatment of relapsed adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: the Nagasaki Transplant Group experience. Blood 121 (1): 219-25, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
Ishida T, Hishizawa M, Kato K, et al.: Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for adult T-cell leukemia-lymphoma with special emphasis on preconditioning regimen: a nationwide retrospective study. Blood 120 (8): 1734-41, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
Katsuya H, Ishitsuka K, Utsunomiya A, et al.: Treatment and survival among 1594 patients with ATL. Blood 126 (24): 2570-7, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
Gill PS, Harrington W Jr, Kaplan MH, et al.: Treatment of adult T-cell leukemia-lymphoma with a combination of interferon alfa and zidovudine. N Engl J Med 332 (26): 1744-8, 1995. [PUBMED Abstract]
Matutes E, Taylor GP, Cavenagh J, et al.: Interferon alpha and zidovudine therapy in adult T-cell leukaemia lymphoma: response and outcome in 15 patients. Br J Haematol 113 (3): 779-84, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
Hermine O, Allard I, Lévy V, et al.: A prospective phase II clinical trial with the use of zidovudine and interferon-alpha in the acute and lymphoma forms of adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma. Hematol J 3 (6): 276-82, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
Bazarbachi A, Plumelle Y, Carlos Ramos J, et al.: Meta-analysis on the use of zidovudine and interferon-alfa in adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma showing improved survival in the leukemic subtypes. J Clin Oncol 28 (27): 4177-83, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
Bazarbachi A, Suarez F, Fields P, et al.: How I treat adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma. Blood 118 (7): 1736-45, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
Ishida T, Fujiwara H, Nosaka K, et al.: Multicenter Phase II Study of Lenalidomide in Relapsed or Recurrent Adult T-Cell Leukemia/Lymphoma: ATLL-002. J Clin Oncol 34 (34): 4086-4093, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
Simone CB 2nd, Morris JC, Stewart DM, et al.: Radiation therapy for the management of patients with HTLV-1-associated adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma. Blood 120 (9): 1816-9, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
Pérez-Galán P, Dreyling M, Wiestner A: Mantle cell lymphoma: biology, pathogenesis, and the molecular basis of treatment in the genomic era. Blood 117 (1): 26-38, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
Clot G, Jares P, Giné E, et al.: A gene signature that distinguishes conventional and leukemic nonnodal mantle cell lymphoma helps predict outcome. Blood 132 (4): 413-422, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
Dreyling M, Klapper W, Rule S: Blastoid and pleomorphic mantle cell lymphoma: still a diagnostic and therapeutic challenge! Blood 132 (26): 2722-2729, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
Herrmann A, Hoster E, Zwingers T, et al.: Improvement of overall survival in advanced stage mantle cell lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 27 (4): 511-8, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
Majlis A, Pugh WC, Rodriguez MA, et al.: Mantle cell lymphoma: correlation of clinical outcome and biologic features with three histologic variants. J Clin Oncol 15 (4): 1664-71, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
Tiemann M, Schrader C, Klapper W, et al.: Histopathology, cell proliferation indices and clinical outcome in 304 patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL): a clinicopathological study from the European MCL Network. Br J Haematol 131 (1): 29-38, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
Campo E, Raffeld M, Jaffe ES: Mantle-cell lymphoma. Semin Hematol 36 (2): 115-27, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
Martin P, Chadburn A, Christos P, et al.: Outcome of deferred initial therapy in mantle-cell lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 27 (8): 1209-13, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
Cohen JB, Han X, Jemal A, et al.: Deferred therapy is associated with improved overall survival in patients with newly diagnosed mantle cell lymphoma. Cancer 122 (15): 2356-63, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
Gerson JN, Handorf E, Villa D, et al.: Survival Outcomes of Younger Patients With Mantle Cell Lymphoma Treated in the Rituximab Era. J Clin Oncol 37 (6): 471-480, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
Goy A, Kalayoglu Besisik S, Drach J, et al.: Longer-term follow-up and outcome by tumour cell proliferation rate (Ki-67) in patients with relapsed/refractory mantle cell lymphoma treated with lenalidomide on MCL-001(EMERGE) pivotal trial. Br J Haematol 170 (4): 496-503, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
Ruan J, Martin P, Shah B, et al.: Lenalidomide plus Rituximab as Initial Treatment for Mantle-Cell Lymphoma. N Engl J Med 373 (19): 1835-44, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
Wang ML, Rule S, Martin P, et al.: Targeting BTK with ibrutinib in relapsed or refractory mantle-cell lymphoma. N Engl J Med 369 (6): 507-16, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
Wang ML, Blum KA, Martin P, et al.: Long-term follow-up of MCL patients treated with single-agent ibrutinib: updated safety and efficacy results. Blood 126 (6): 739-45, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
Ruan J, Martin P, Christos P, et al.: Five-year follow-up of lenalidomide plus rituximab as initial treatment of mantle cell lymphoma. Blood 132 (19): 2016-2025, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
Kluin-Nelemans HC, Hoster E, Hermine O, et al.: Treatment of older patients with mantle-cell lymphoma. N Engl J Med 367 (6): 520-31, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
Rummel MJ, Niederle N, Maschmeyer G, et al.: Bendamustine plus rituximab versus CHOP plus rituximab as first-line treatment for patients with indolent and mantle-cell lymphomas: an open-label, multicentre, randomised, phase 3 non-inferiority trial. Lancet 381 (9873): 1203-10, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
Robak T, Huang H, Jin J, et al.: Bortezomib-based therapy for newly diagnosed mantle-cell lymphoma. N Engl J Med 372 (10): 944-53, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
Hermine O, Hoster E, Walewski J, et al.: Addition of high-dose cytarabine to immunochemotherapy before autologous stem-cell transplantation in patients aged 65 years or younger with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL Younger): a randomised, open-label, phase 3 trial of the European Mantle Cell Lymphoma Network. Lancet 388 (10044): 565-75, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
Khouri IF, Lee MS, Saliba RM, et al.: Nonablative allogeneic stem-cell transplantation for advanced/recurrent mantle-cell lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 21 (23): 4407-12, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
Dreyling M, Lenz G, Hoster E, et al.: Early consolidation by myeloablative radiochemotherapy followed by autologous stem cell transplantation in first remission significantly prolongs progression-free survival in mantle-cell lymphoma: results of a prospective randomized trial of the European MCL Network. Blood 105 (7): 2677-84, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
Geisler CH, Kolstad A, Laurell A, et al.: Long-term progression-free survival of mantle cell lymphoma after intensive front-line immunochemotherapy with in vivo-purged stem cell rescue: a nonrandomized phase 2 multicenter study by the Nordic Lymphoma Group. Blood 112 (7): 2687-93, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
Tam CS, Bassett R, Ledesma C, et al.: Mature results of the M. D. Anderson Cancer Center risk-adapted transplantation strategy in mantle cell lymphoma. Blood 113 (18): 4144-52, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
Damon LE, Johnson JL, Niedzwiecki D, et al.: Immunochemotherapy and autologous stem-cell transplantation for untreated patients with mantle-cell lymphoma: CALGB 59909. J Clin Oncol 27 (36): 6101-8, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
Fenske TS, Zhang MJ, Carreras J, et al.: Autologous or reduced-intensity conditioning allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation for chemotherapy-sensitive mantle-cell lymphoma: analysis of transplantation timing and modality. J Clin Oncol 32 (4): 273-81, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
Le Gouill S, Thieblemont C, Oberic L, et al.: Rituximab after Autologous Stem-Cell Transplantation in Mantle-Cell Lymphoma. N Engl J Med 377 (13): 1250-1260, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
Wang M, Fayad L, Wagner-Bartak N, et al.: Lenalidomide in combination with rituximab for patients with relapsed or refractory mantle-cell lymphoma: a phase 1/2 clinical trial. Lancet Oncol 13 (7): 716-23, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
Trněný M, Lamy T, Walewski J, et al.: Lenalidomide versus investigator's choice in relapsed or refractory mantle cell lymphoma (MCL-002; SPRINT): a phase 2, randomised, multicentre trial. Lancet Oncol 17 (3): 319-31, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
Dreyling M, Jurczak W, Jerkeman M, et al.: Ibrutinib versus temsirolimus in patients with relapsed or refractory mantle-cell lymphoma: an international, randomised, open-label, phase 3 study. Lancet 387 (10020): 770-8, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
Tam CS, Anderson MA, Pott C, et al.: Ibrutinib plus Venetoclax for the Treatment of Mantle-Cell Lymphoma. N Engl J Med 378 (13): 1211-1223, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
Wang M, Rule S, Zinzani PL, et al.: Acalabrutinib in relapsed or refractory mantle cell lymphoma (ACE-LY-004): a single-arm, multicentre, phase 2 trial. Lancet 391 (10121): 659-667, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
Martin P, Ruan J, Leonard JP: The potential for chemotherapy-free strategies in mantle cell lymphoma. Blood 130 (17): 1881-1888, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
Morrison VA, Dunn DL, Manivel JC, et al.: Clinical characteristics of post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders. Am J Med 97 (1): 14-24, 1994. [PUBMED Abstract]
Knowles DM, Cesarman E, Chadburn A, et al.: Correlative morphologic and molecular genetic analysis demonstrates three distinct categories of posttransplantation lymphoproliferative disorders. Blood 85 (2): 552-65, 1995. [PUBMED Abstract]
Leblond V, Dhedin N, Mamzer Bruneel MF, et al.: Identification of prognostic factors in 61 patients with posttransplantation lymphoproliferative disorders. J Clin Oncol 19 (3): 772-8, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
Ghobrial IM, Habermann TM, Maurer MJ, et al.: Prognostic analysis for survival in adult solid organ transplant recipients with post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disorders. J Clin Oncol 23 (30): 7574-82, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
Evens AM, David KA, Helenowski I, et al.: Multicenter analysis of 80 solid organ transplantation recipients with post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disease: outcomes and prognostic factors in the modern era. J Clin Oncol 28 (6): 1038-46, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
Dierickx D, Tousseyn T, Gheysens O: How I treat posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorders. Blood 126 (20): 2274-83, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
Kuehnle I, Huls MH, Liu Z, et al.: CD20 monoclonal antibody (rituximab) for therapy of Epstein-Barr virus lymphoma after hemopoietic stem-cell transplantation. Blood 95 (4): 1502-5, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
Trappe RU, Dierickx D, Zimmermann H, et al.: Response to Rituximab Induction Is a Predictive Marker in B-Cell Post-Transplant Lymphoproliferative Disorder and Allows Successful Stratification Into Rituximab or R-CHOP Consolidation in an International, Prospective, Multicenter Phase II Trial. J Clin Oncol 35 (5): 536-543, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
Leblond V, Sutton L, Dorent R, et al.: Lymphoproliferative disorders after organ transplantation: a report of 24 cases observed in a single center. J Clin Oncol 13 (4): 961-8, 1995. [PUBMED Abstract]
Mamzer-Bruneel MF, Lomé C, Morelon E, et al.: Durable remission after aggressive chemotherapy for very late post-kidney transplant lymphoproliferation: A report of 16 cases observed in a single center. J Clin Oncol 18 (21): 3622-32, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
Swinnen LJ: Durable remission after aggressive chemotherapy for post-cardiac transplant lymphoproliferation. Leuk Lymphoma 28 (1-2): 89-101, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
McCarthy M, Ramage J, McNair A, et al.: The clinical diversity and role of chemotherapy in lymphoproliferative disorder in liver transplant recipients. J Hepatol 27 (6): 1015-21, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
Leblond V, Davi F, Charlotte F, et al.: Posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorders not associated with Epstein-Barr virus: a distinct entity? J Clin Oncol 16 (6): 2052-9, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
Senderowicz AM, Vitetta E, Headlee D, et al.: Complete sustained response of a refractory, post-transplantation, large B-cell lymphoma to an anti-CD22 immunotoxin. Ann Intern Med 126 (11): 882-5, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
Haddad E, Paczesny S, Leblond V, et al.: Treatment of B-lymphoproliferative disorder with a monoclonal anti-interleukin-6 antibody in 12 patients: a multicenter phase 1-2 clinical trial. Blood 97 (6): 1590-7, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
Soslow RA, Davis RE, Warnke RA, et al.: True histiocytic lymphoma following therapy for lymphoblastic neoplasms. Blood 87 (12): 5207-12, 1996. [PUBMED Abstract]
Kamel OW, Gocke CD, Kell DL, et al.: True histiocytic lymphoma: a study of 12 cases based on current definition. Leuk Lymphoma 18 (1-2): 81-6, 1995. [PUBMED Abstract]
Nador RG, Cesarman E, Chadburn A, et al.: Primary effusion lymphoma: a distinct clinicopathologic entity associated with the Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpes virus. Blood 88 (2): 645-56, 1996. [PUBMED Abstract]
Shimada K, Hayakawa F, Kiyoi H: Biology and management of primary effusion lymphoma. Blood 132 (18): 1879-1888, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
Castillo JJ, Bibas M, Miranda RN: The biology and treatment of plasmablastic lymphoma. Blood 125 (15): 2323-30, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
Al-Malki MM, Castillo JJ, Sloan JM, et al.: Hematopoietic cell transplantation for plasmablastic lymphoma: a review. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 20 (12): 1877-84, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
Cattaneo C, Re A, Ungari M, et al.: Plasmablastic lymphoma among human immunodeficiency virus-positive patients: results of a single center's experience. Leuk Lymphoma 56 (1): 267-9, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]