martes, 30 de julio de 2019

Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment - National Cancer Institute 3/9

Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment - National Cancer Institute

National Cancer Institute



Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment (PDQ®)–Health Professional Version



Indolent NHL

Indolent non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) includes the following subtypes:

Follicular Lymphoma

Follicular lymphoma comprises 20% of all NHL and as many as 70% of the indolent lymphomas reported in American and European clinical trials.[1-3] Most patients with follicular lymphoma are age 50 years and older and present with widespread disease at diagnosis. Nodal involvement is most common and is often accompanied by splenic and bone marrow disease. Rearrangement of the BCL2 gene is present in more than 90% of patients with follicular lymphoma; overexpression of the BCL2 protein is associated with the inability to eradicate the lymphoma by inhibiting apoptosis.[4]

Prognosis

Despite the advanced stage, the median survival ranges from 8 to 15 years, leading to the designation of being indolent.[5-7] Patients with advanced-stage follicular lymphoma are not cured with current therapeutic options. The rate of relapse is fairly consistent over time, even in patients who have achieved complete responses to treatment.[8] Watchful waiting, i.e., the deferring of treatment until the patient becomes symptomatic, is an option for patients with advanced-stage follicular lymphoma.[9,10] An international index for follicular lymphoma (i.e., the Follicular Lymphoma International Prognostic Index [FLIPI]) [11-13] identified five significant risk factors prognostic of overall survival (OS):
  1. Age (≤60 years vs. >60 years).
  2. Serum lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) (normal vs. elevated).
  3. Stage (stage I or stage II vs. stage III or stage IV).
  4. Hemoglobin level (≥120 g/L vs. <120 g/L).
  5. Number of nodal areas (≤4 vs. >4).
Patients with one risk factor or none have an 85% 10-year survival rate, and three or more risk factors confer a 40% 10-year survival rate.[11] In a revised FLIPI-2, an elevated beta-2-microglobulin and lymph node size of more than 6 cm are proposed prognostic factors instead of serum LDH and the number of nodal areas.[14] Although the FLIPI and FLIPI-2 indices can predict progression-free survival (PFS) and OS, the scores cannot be used to establish the need for therapy, nor can they be used to predict response to therapy.[11,14] The primary use of FLIPI or FLIPI-2 is to assure a balance of prognostic factors or to define entry requirements in randomized clinical trials. Individuals with an adverse FLIPI score may well benefit from watchful waiting or may respond well to initial therapy. An alternative prognostic index using only beta-2-microglobulin and initial bone marrow involvement (PRIMA-PI) has the disadvantage of requiring an invasive test not usually required outside the context of a clinical trial.[15]
Two retrospective analyses identified a high-risk group that had a 50% OS rate at 5 years when relapse occurred after induction chemoimmunotherapy at 24 or 30 months; this has not been validated in prospective studies or an independent cohort.[16,17] These higher-risk patients represent a target population for clinical trials.
Follicular, small-cleaved cell lymphoma and follicular mixed small-cleaved and large cell lymphoma do not have reproducibly different disease-free survival or OS.

Therapeutic approaches

Because of the often indolent clinical course and the lack of symptoms in some patients with follicular lymphoma, watchful waiting remains a standard of care during the initial encounter and for patients with slow asymptomatic relapsing disease. When therapy is required, numerous therapeutic options may be employed in varying sequences with an OS equivalence at 5 to 10 years.[9,18-20] Rituximab can be given alone or in combination with various chemotherapy options.[20,21] Rituximab can also be combined with the immunomodulating-agent lenalidomide to avoid the short- and long-term toxicities of cytotoxic agents.[22,23] Another anti–CD20 monoclonal antibody, obinutuzumab, can be administered with combination chemotherapy.[24] Inhibitors of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) are also effective in patients with relapsed or refractory disease.[25-28] Consolidation therapy for relapsed disease after reinduction therapy using autologous stem cell transplant (SCT) or allogeneic SCT can be considered.[29]
Follicular lymphoma in situ and primary follicular lymphoma of the duodenum are particularly indolent variants that rarely progress and rarely require therapy.[30,31] A so-called pediatric-type nodal follicular lymphoma has indolent behavior and rarely recurs; adult patients with this histologic variant are characterized by a lack of BCL2rearrangement in conjunction with a Ki-67 proliferation index greater than 30% and a localized stage I presentation.[32]
Patients with indolent lymphoma may experience a relapse with a more aggressive histology. If the clinical pattern of relapse suggests that the disease is behaving in a more aggressive manner, a biopsy can be performed, if feasible.[33] Documentation of conversion to a more aggressive histology requires an appropriate change to a therapy applicable to that histologic type.[34] Rapid growth or discordant growth between various disease sites may indicate a histologic conversion.[33] The risk of histologic transformation was 30% by 10 years in a retrospective review of 325 patients from diagnosis between 1972 and 1999.[35] In this series, high-risk factors for subsequent histologic transformation were advanced stage, high-risk FLIPI, and expectant management (as opposed to treatment being initiated at diagnosis). The 5-year OS rate was more than 50% for patients who had biopsy-proven, aggressive-histology transformation in several multicenter cohort studies employing rituximab plus anthracycline or platinum-based chemotherapy, or similar therapy followed by autologous or allogeneic SCT.[33,36,37]
In a prospective nonrandomized study, at a median follow-up of 6.8 years, 379 (14%) of 2,652 patients subsequently transformed to a more aggressive histology after an initial diagnosis of follicular lymphoma.[38][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] The median OS after subsequent transformation was 5 years; however, among 47 patients with evidence of transformation in conjunction with follicular lymphoma at the time of initial diagnosis, the OS was no worse than that of the other nontransformed patients (5-year OS, 88%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 74%–95%).

Lymphoplasmacytic Lymphoma (Waldenström Macroglobulinemia)

Lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma is usually associated with a monoclonal serum paraprotein of immunoglobulin M (IgM) type (Waldenström macroglobulinemia).[39] Most patients have bone marrow, lymph node, and splenic involvement, and some patients may develop hyperviscosity syndrome. Most patients with Waldenström macroglobulinemia carry the MYD88 mutation, which some pathologists consider pathognomonic for the disease.[40] Other lymphomas may also be associated with serum paraproteins. Patients with lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma should be checked for associated hepatitis C virus infection.
Asymptomatic patients can be monitored for evidence of disease progression without immediate need for chemotherapy.[9,41,42]
Prognostic factors associated with symptoms requiring therapy include the following:
  • Age 70 years or older.
  • Beta-2-microglobulin of 3 mg/dL or more.
  • Increased serum LDH.[41]

Therapeutic approaches

The management of lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma is similar to that of other low-grade lymphomas, especially diffuse, small lymphocytic lymphoma/chronic lymphocytic leukemia.[41,43-45] If the viscosity relative to water is greater than four, the patient may have manifestations of hyperviscosity. Plasmapheresis is useful for temporary, acute symptoms (such as retinopathy, congestive heart failure, and central nervous system [CNS] dysfunction) but can be combined with chemotherapy for prolonged control of the disease. Symptomatic patients with a serum viscosity of not more than four are usually started directly on chemotherapy. Therapy may be required to correct hemolytic anemia in patients with chronic cold agglutinin disease; rituximab, cyclophosphamide, and steroids are often employed.[42] Occasionally, a heated room is required for patients whose cold agglutinins become activated by even minor chilling.
First-line regimens include rituximab and ibrutinib, rituximab alone, the nucleoside analogs, and alkylating agents, either as single agents or as part of combination chemotherapy.[46-50] In a randomized prospective trial, 150 symptomatic patients (including previously untreated and relapsing patients) received either ibrutinib and rituximab or rituximab and a placebo. With a median follow-up of 2.5 years, the PFS favored the ibrutinib-and-rituximab arm (82%) versus the rituximab-and-placebo arm (28%) (hazard ratio, 0.20; 95% CI, 0.11–0.38; P < .001), and the OS at 30 months was no different in the two arms (OS, 92%–94%).[50][Level of evidence: 1iDiii] A phase II trial of 30 patients studied single-agent ibrutinib in previously untreated Waldenström macroglobulinemia patients. With a median follow-up of 15 months, the objective response rate was 83%, and the 18-month PFS rate was 92% (95% CI, 73%–98%).[51][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] Rituximab showed 60% to 80% response rates in previously untreated patients, but close monitoring of the serum IgM is required because of a sudden rise in this paraprotein at the start of therapy.[46,52,53][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] The rise of IgM after rituximab can be avoided with the concomitant use of an alkylating agent, such as cyclophosphamide or the proteosome inhibitor bortezomib.[42,54,55] A combination of bortezomib, dexamethasone, and rituximab has been used with avoidance of an IgM rebound.[56-58] The nucleoside analogs 2-chlorodeoxyadenosine and fludarabine have shown similar response rates for previously untreated patients with lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma.[49,59,60][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] Single-agent alkylators, bendamustine, bortezomib, and combination chemotherapy with or without rituximab also show similar response rates.[49,54,61-64][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] In the rare case of lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma involving the central nervous system (Bing-Neel syndrome), ibrutinib resulted in an 85% response rate in an anecdotal series of 28 patients.[65][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv]
Myeloablative therapy with autologous or allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell support is under clinical evaluation.[66-69] Candidates for this approach should avoid long-term use of alkylating agents or purine nucleoside analogs, which can deplete hematopoietic stem cells or predispose patients to myelodysplasia or acute leukemia.[46,70] After relapse from alkylating-agent therapy, 92 patients with lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma were randomly assigned to either fludarabine or cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, and prednisone. Although relapse-free survival favored fludarabine (median duration of 19 months vs. 3 months, P < .01), no difference was observed in OS.[71][Level of evidence: 1iiDii]

Marginal Zone Lymphoma

Marginal zone lymphomas were previously included among the diffuse, small lymphocytic lymphomas. When marginal zone lymphomas involve the nodes, they are called monocytoid B-cell lymphomas or nodal marginal zone B-cell lymphomas, and when they involve extranodal sites (e.g., gastrointestinal tract, thyroid, lung, breast, orbit, and skin), they are called mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT) lymphomas.[72,73] A prognostic index for all of the marginal zone lymphomas has three adverse prognostic factors: age 70 years or older, stage III or stage IV disease, and high LDH level.[74] Fewer than 10% of patients transform to a higher-grade lymphoma; risk factors in one retrospective review included elevated LDH, more than four nodal sites at the time of initial diagnosis of marginal zone lymphoma, and failure to achieve complete response after initial treatment.[75]

Gastric MALT

Many patients have a history of autoimmune disease, such as Hashimoto thyroiditis or Sjögren syndrome, or of Helicobacter gastritis. Most patients present with stage I or stage II extranodal disease, which is most often in the stomach. Treatment of Helicobacter pyloriinfection may resolve most cases of localized gastric involvement.[76,77] After standard antibiotic regimens, 50% of patients show resolution of gastric MALT by endoscopy after 3 months. Other patients may show resolution after 12 to 18 months of observation. Of the patients who attain complete remission, 30% demonstrate monoclonality by immunoglobulin heavy chain rearrangement on stomach biopsies with a 5-year median follow-up.[78] The clinical implication of this finding is unknown. Translocation t(11;18) in patients with gastric MALT predicts for poor response to antibiotic therapy, for H. pylori–negative testing, and for poor response to oral alkylator chemotherapy.[79-81] Stable asymptomatic patients with persistently positive biopsies have been successfully followed on a watchful waiting approach until disease progression.[77] Patients who progress are treated with radiation therapy,[82-85] rituximab,[86] surgery (total gastrectomy or partial gastrectomy plus radiation therapy),[87] chemotherapy,[88] or combined–modality therapy.[89] The use of endoscopic ultrasonography may help clinicians to follow responses in these patients.[90] Four case series (encompassing more than 100 patients with stage IE or IIE diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) with or without associated MALT (but H. pylori-positive) reported durable complete remissions in more than 50% of the patients after treatment of H. pylori.[91-94]

Extragastric MALT

Localized involvement of other sites can be treated with radiation or surgery.[83-85,95-98] Patients with extragastric MALT lymphoma have a higher relapse rate than patients with gastric MALT lymphoma in some series, with relapses many years and even decades later.[99] Many of these recurrences involve different MALT sites than the original location.[100] When disseminated to lymph nodes, bone marrow, or blood, this entity behaves like other low-grade lymphomas.[101,102] A prospective, randomized trial of 401 patients with nongastric, extranodal MALT compared chlorambucil alone versus rituximab plus chlorambucil versus rituximab alone.[103] With a median follow-up of 7.4 years, the event-free survival was better for the rituximab-plus-chlorambucil arm (68%) than for the rituximab-alone arm (51%) and for the chlorambucil-alone arm (50%) (P = .0009); however, the 5-year OS was 90% in all arms.[103] For patients with ocular adnexal MALT, antibiotic therapy using doxycycline that targeted Chlamydia psittaci resulted in durable remissions for almost half of the patients in a review of the literature that included 131 patients.[104][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] These responses to doxycycline are mainly seen in Italian trials and less often in trials conducted in other geographic sites.[105] Large B-cell lymphomas of MALT sites are classified and treated as diffuse large cell lymphomas.[106] A large, retrospective review of primary ocular adnexal MALT found that after 10 years of follow-up, 4% of stage I patients treated with radiation therapy transformed to DLBCL, and 3% of them developed CNS involvement.[107]

Nodal marginal zone lymphoma

Patients with nodal marginal zone lymphoma (monocytoid B-cell lymphoma) are treated with the same paradigm of watchful waiting or therapies as described for follicular lymphoma.[108] Among patients with concomitant HCV infection, the majority attain a complete or partial remission after loss of detectable HCV RNA with treatment using interferon-alpha with or without ribavirin.[109][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv]

Mediterranean abdominal lymphoma

The disease variously known as Mediterranean abdominal lymphoma, heavy–chain disease, or immunoproliferative small intestinal disease (IPSID), which occurs in young adults in eastern Mediterranean countries, is another version of MALT lymphoma, which responds to antibiotics in its early stages.[110] Campylobacter jejuni has been identified as one of the bacterial species associated with IPSID, and antibiotic therapy may result in remission of the disease.[111]

Splenic marginal zone lymphoma

Splenic marginal zone lymphoma is an indolent lymphoma that is marked by massive splenomegaly and peripheral blood and bone marrow involvement, usually without adenopathy.[112,113] This type of lymphoma is otherwise known as splenic lymphoma with villous lymphocytes. Splenectomy may result in prolonged remission.[72,114]
Management is similar to that of other low-grade lymphomas and usually involves rituximab alone or rituximab in combination with purine analogs or alkylating agent chemotherapy.[115] Splenic marginal zone lymphoma responds less well to chemotherapy, which would ordinarily be effective for chronic lymphocytic leukemia.[112,115,116] Among small numbers of patients with splenic marginal zone lymphoma (splenic lymphoma with villous lymphocytes) and infection with HCV, the majority attained a complete or partial remission after loss of detectable HCV RNA with treatment using interferon-alpha with or without ribavirin.[109,117]; [118][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] In contrast, no responses to interferon were seen in six HCV-negative patients.

Primary Cutaneous Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma

Primary cutaneous anaplastic large cell lymphoma presents in the skin only with no pre-existing lymphoproliferative disease and no extracutaneous sites of involvement.[119-121] Patients with this type of lymphoma encompass a spectrum ranging from clinically benign lymphomatoid papulosis, marked by localized nodules that may regress spontaneously, to a progressive and systemic disease requiring aggressive doxorubicin-based combination chemotherapy. This spectrum has been called the primary cutaneous CD30-positive T-cell lymphoproliferative disorder.
Patients with localized disease usually undergo radiation therapy. With more disseminated involvement, watchful waiting or doxorubicin-based combination chemotherapy is applied.[119-121]
(Refer to the PDQ summaries on Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia Treatment; Mycosis Fungoides (Including Sézary Syndrome) Treatment; Hairy Cell Leukemia Treatment; and Adult Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment for more information.)
References
  1. Armitage JO, Weisenburger DD: New approach to classifying non-Hodgkin's lymphomas: clinical features of the major histologic subtypes. Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Classification Project. J Clin Oncol 16 (8): 2780-95, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
  2. A clinical evaluation of the International Lymphoma Study Group classification of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. The Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Classification Project. Blood 89 (11): 3909-18, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
  3. Society for Hematopathology Program: Society for Hematopathology Program. Am J Surg Pathol 21 (1): 114-121, 1997.
  4. López-Guillermo A, Cabanillas F, McDonnell TI, et al.: Correlation of bcl-2 rearrangement with clinical characteristics and outcome in indolent follicular lymphoma. Blood 93 (9): 3081-7, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
  5. Peterson BA, Petroni GR, Frizzera G, et al.: Prolonged single-agent versus combination chemotherapy in indolent follicular lymphomas: a study of the cancer and leukemia group B. J Clin Oncol 21 (1): 5-15, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
  6. Swenson WT, Wooldridge JE, Lynch CF, et al.: Improved survival of follicular lymphoma patients in the United States. J Clin Oncol 23 (22): 5019-26, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
  7. Liu Q, Fayad L, Cabanillas F, et al.: Improvement of overall and failure-free survival in stage IV follicular lymphoma: 25 years of treatment experience at The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center. J Clin Oncol 24 (10): 1582-9, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
  8. Kahl BS, Yang DT: Follicular lymphoma: evolving therapeutic strategies. Blood 127 (17): 2055-63, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
  9. Ardeshna KM, Smith P, Norton A, et al.: Long-term effect of a watch and wait policy versus immediate systemic treatment for asymptomatic advanced-stage non-Hodgkin lymphoma: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 362 (9383): 516-22, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
  10. Armitage JO, Longo DL: Is watch and wait still acceptable for patients with low-grade follicular lymphoma? Blood 127 (23): 2804-8, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
  11. Solal-Céligny P, Roy P, Colombat P, et al.: Follicular lymphoma international prognostic index. Blood 104 (5): 1258-65, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
  12. Perea G, Altés A, Montoto S, et al.: Prognostic indexes in follicular lymphoma: a comparison of different prognostic systems. Ann Oncol 16 (9): 1508-13, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
  13. Buske C, Hoster E, Dreyling M, et al.: The Follicular Lymphoma International Prognostic Index (FLIPI) separates high-risk from intermediate- or low-risk patients with advanced-stage follicular lymphoma treated front-line with rituximab and the combination of cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone (R-CHOP) with respect to treatment outcome. Blood 108 (5): 1504-8, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
  14. Federico M, Bellei M, Marcheselli L, et al.: Follicular lymphoma international prognostic index 2: a new prognostic index for follicular lymphoma developed by the international follicular lymphoma prognostic factor project. J Clin Oncol 27 (27): 4555-62, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
  15. Bachy E, Maurer MJ, Habermann TM, et al.: A simplified scoring system in de novo follicular lymphoma treated initially with immunochemotherapy. Blood 132 (1): 49-58, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
  16. Casulo C, Byrtek M, Dawson KL, et al.: Early Relapse of Follicular Lymphoma After Rituximab Plus Cyclophosphamide, Doxorubicin, Vincristine, and Prednisone Defines Patients at High Risk for Death: An Analysis From the National LymphoCare Study. J Clin Oncol 33 (23): 2516-22, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
  17. Shi Q, Flowers CR, Hiddemann W, et al.: Thirty-Month Complete Response as a Surrogate End Point in First-Line Follicular Lymphoma Therapy: An Individual Patient-Level Analysis of Multiple Randomized Trials. J Clin Oncol 35 (5): 552-560, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
  18. Brice P, Bastion Y, Lepage E, et al.: Comparison in low-tumor-burden follicular lymphomas between an initial no-treatment policy, prednimustine, or interferon alfa: a randomized study from the Groupe d'Etude des Lymphomes Folliculaires. Groupe d'Etude des Lymphomes de l'Adulte. J Clin Oncol 15 (3): 1110-7, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
  19. Young RC, Longo DL, Glatstein E, et al.: The treatment of indolent lymphomas: watchful waiting v aggressive combined modality treatment. Semin Hematol 25 (2 Suppl 2): 11-6, 1988. [PUBMED Abstract]
  20. Luminari S, Ferrari A, Manni M, et al.: Long-Term Results of the FOLL05 Trial Comparing R-CVP Versus R-CHOP Versus R-FM for the Initial Treatment of Patients With Advanced-Stage Symptomatic Follicular Lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 36 (7): 689-696, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
  21. Lockmer S, Østenstad B, Hagberg H, et al.: Chemotherapy-Free Initial Treatment of Advanced Indolent Lymphoma Has Durable Effect With Low Toxicity: Results From Two Nordic Lymphoma Group Trials With More Than 10 Years of Follow-Up. J Clin Oncol : JCO1800262, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
  22. Morschhauser F, Fowler NH, Feugier P, et al.: Rituximab plus Lenalidomide in Advanced Untreated Follicular Lymphoma. N Engl J Med 379 (10): 934-947, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
  23. Leonard JP, Trnený M, Izutsu K, et al.: Augment: a phase III randomized study of lenalidomide Plus rituximab (R2) vs rituximab/placebo in patients with relapsed/refractory indolent non-Hodgkin lymphoma. [Abstract] Blood 132 (Suppl 1): A-445, 2018.
  24. Marcus R, Davies A, Ando K, et al.: Obinutuzumab for the First-Line Treatment of Follicular Lymphoma. N Engl J Med 377 (14): 1331-1344, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
  25. Dreyling M, Santoro A, Mollica L, et al.: Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase Inhibition by Copanlisib in Relapsed or Refractory Indolent Lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 35 (35): 3898-3905, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
  26. Gopal AK, Kahl BS, de Vos S, et al.: PI3Kδ inhibition by idelalisib in patients with relapsed indolent lymphoma. N Engl J Med 370 (11): 1008-18, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
  27. Gopal AK, Kahl BS, Flowers CR, et al.: Idelalisib is effective in patients with high-risk follicular lymphoma and early relapse after initial chemoimmunotherapy. Blood 129 (22): 3037-3039, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
  28. Flinn IW, Miller CB, Ardeshna KM, et al.: Dynamo: a phase 2 study demonstrating the clinical activity of duvelisib in patients with relapsed refractory indolent non-Hodgkin lymphoma. [Abstract] Blood 128 (22): A-1218, 2016.
  29. Schaaf M, Reiser M, Borchmann P, et al.: High-dose therapy with autologous stem cell transplantation versus chemotherapy or immuno-chemotherapy for follicular lymphoma in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 1: CD007678, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
  30. Schmatz AI, Streubel B, Kretschmer-Chott E, et al.: Primary follicular lymphoma of the duodenum is a distinct mucosal/submucosal variant of follicular lymphoma: a retrospective study of 63 cases. J Clin Oncol 29 (11): 1445-51, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
  31. Jegalian AG, Eberle FC, Pack SD, et al.: Follicular lymphoma in situ: clinical implications and comparisons with partial involvement by follicular lymphoma. Blood 118 (11): 2976-84, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
  32. Louissaint A Jr, Ackerman AM, Dias-Santagata D, et al.: Pediatric-type nodal follicular lymphoma: an indolent clonal proliferation in children and adults with high proliferation index and no BCL2 rearrangement. Blood 120 (12): 2395-404, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
  33. Sarkozy C, Trneny M, Xerri L, et al.: Risk Factors and Outcomes for Patients With Follicular Lymphoma Who Had Histologic Transformation After Response to First-Line Immunochemotherapy in the PRIMA Trial. J Clin Oncol 34 (22): 2575-82, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
  34. Tsimberidou AM, O'Brien S, Khouri I, et al.: Clinical outcomes and prognostic factors in patients with Richter's syndrome treated with chemotherapy or chemoimmunotherapy with or without stem-cell transplantation. J Clin Oncol 24 (15): 2343-51, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
  35. Montoto S, Davies AJ, Matthews J, et al.: Risk and clinical implications of transformation of follicular lymphoma to diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 25 (17): 2426-33, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
  36. Villa D, Crump M, Panzarella T, et al.: Autologous and allogeneic stem-cell transplantation for transformed follicular lymphoma: a report of the Canadian blood and marrow transplant group. J Clin Oncol 31 (9): 1164-71, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
  37. Williams CD, Harrison CN, Lister TA, et al.: High-dose therapy and autologous stem-cell support for chemosensitive transformed low-grade follicular non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: a case-matched study from the European Bone Marrow Transplant Registry. J Clin Oncol 19 (3): 727-35, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
  38. Wagner-Johnston ND, Link BK, Byrtek M, et al.: Outcomes of transformed follicular lymphoma in the modern era: a report from the National LymphoCare Study (NLCS). Blood 126 (7): 851-7, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
  39. Leblond V, Kastritis E, Advani R, et al.: Treatment recommendations from the Eighth International Workshop on Waldenström's Macroglobulinemia. Blood 128 (10): 1321-8, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
  40. Treon SP, Xu L, Yang G, et al.: MYD88 L265P somatic mutation in Waldenström's macroglobulinemia. N Engl J Med 367 (9): 826-33, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
  41. Dhodapkar MV, Hoering A, Gertz MA, et al.: Long-term survival in Waldenstrom macroglobulinemia: 10-year follow-up of Southwest Oncology Group-directed intergroup trial S9003. Blood 113 (4): 793-6, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
  42. Ansell SM, Kyle RA, Reeder CB, et al.: Diagnosis and management of Waldenström macroglobulinemia: Mayo stratification of macroglobulinemia and risk-adapted therapy (mSMART) guidelines. Mayo Clin Proc 85 (9): 824-33, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
  43. Leblond V, Ben-Othman T, Deconinck E, et al.: Activity of fludarabine in previously treated Waldenström's macroglobulinemia: a report of 71 cases. Groupe Coopératif Macroglobulinémie. J Clin Oncol 16 (6): 2060-4, 1998. [PUBMED Abstract]
  44. Foran JM, Rohatiner AZ, Coiffier B, et al.: Multicenter phase II study of fludarabine phosphate for patients with newly diagnosed lymphoplasmacytoid lymphoma, Waldenström's macroglobulinemia, and mantle-cell lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 17 (2): 546-53, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
  45. Baldini L, Goldaniga M, Guffanti A, et al.: Immunoglobulin M monoclonal gammopathies of undetermined significance and indolent Waldenstrom's macroglobulinemia recognize the same determinants of evolution into symptomatic lymphoid disorders: proposal for a common prognostic scoring system. J Clin Oncol 23 (21): 4662-8, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
  46. Gertz MA, Anagnostopoulos A, Anderson K, et al.: Treatment recommendations in Waldenstrom's macroglobulinemia: consensus panel recommendations from the Second International Workshop on Waldenstrom's Macroglobulinemia. Semin Oncol 30 (2): 121-6, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
  47. Dimopoulos MA, Anagnostopoulos A, Kyrtsonis MC, et al.: Primary treatment of Waldenström macroglobulinemia with dexamethasone, rituximab, and cyclophosphamide. J Clin Oncol 25 (22): 3344-9, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
  48. Treon SP, Branagan AR, Ioakimidis L, et al.: Long-term outcomes to fludarabine and rituximab in Waldenström macroglobulinemia. Blood 113 (16): 3673-8, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
  49. Leblond V, Johnson S, Chevret S, et al.: Results of a randomized trial of chlorambucil versus fludarabine for patients with untreated Waldenström macroglobulinemia, marginal zone lymphoma, or lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 31 (3): 301-7, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
  50. Dimopoulos MA, Tedeschi A, Trotman J, et al.: Phase 3 Trial of Ibrutinib plus Rituximab in Waldenström's Macroglobulinemia. N Engl J Med 378 (25): 2399-2410, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
  51. Treon SP, Gustine J, Meid K, et al.: Ibrutinib Monotherapy in Symptomatic, Treatment-Naïve Patients With Waldenström Macroglobulinemia. J Clin Oncol 36 (27): 2755-2761, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
  52. Dimopoulos MA, Zervas C, Zomas A, et al.: Treatment of Waldenström's macroglobulinemia with rituximab. J Clin Oncol 20 (9): 2327-33, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
  53. Treon SP, Branagan AR, Hunter Z, et al.: Paradoxical increases in serum IgM and viscosity levels following rituximab in Waldenstrom's macroglobulinemia. Ann Oncol 15 (10): 1481-3, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
  54. Dimopoulos MA, Chen C, Kastritis E, et al.: Bortezomib as a treatment option in patients with Waldenström macroglobulinemia. Clin Lymphoma Myeloma Leuk 10 (2): 110-7, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
  55. Gavriatopoulou M, García-Sanz R, Kastritis E, et al.: BDR in newly diagnosed patients with WM: final analysis of a phase 2 study after a minimum follow-up of 6 years. Blood 129 (4): 456-459, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
  56. Treon SP, Ioakimidis L, Soumerai JD, et al.: Primary therapy of Waldenström macroglobulinemia with bortezomib, dexamethasone, and rituximab: WMCTG clinical trial 05-180. J Clin Oncol 27 (23): 3830-5, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
  57. Dimopoulos MA, García-Sanz R, Gavriatopoulou M, et al.: Primary therapy of Waldenstrom macroglobulinemia (WM) with weekly bortezomib, low-dose dexamethasone, and rituximab (BDR): long-term results of a phase 2 study of the European Myeloma Network (EMN). Blood 122 (19): 3276-82, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
  58. Treon SP, Tripsas CK, Meid K, et al.: Carfilzomib, rituximab, and dexamethasone (CaRD) treatment offers a neuropathy-sparing approach for treating Waldenström's macroglobulinemia. Blood 124 (4): 503-10, 2014. [PUBMED Abstract]
  59. Dimopoulos MA, Alexanian R: Waldenstrom's macroglobulinemia. Blood 83 (6): 1452-9, 1994. [PUBMED Abstract]
  60. Laszlo D, Andreola G, Rigacci L, et al.: Rituximab and subcutaneous 2-chloro-2'-deoxyadenosine combination treatment for patients with Waldenstrom macroglobulinemia: clinical and biologic results of a phase II multicenter study. J Clin Oncol 28 (13): 2233-8, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
  61. García-Sanz R, Montoto S, Torrequebrada A, et al.: Waldenström macroglobulinaemia: presenting features and outcome in a series with 217 cases. Br J Haematol 115 (3): 575-82, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
  62. Buske C, Hoster E, Dreyling M, et al.: The addition of rituximab to front-line therapy with CHOP (R-CHOP) results in a higher response rate and longer time to treatment failure in patients with lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma: results of a randomized trial of the German Low-Grade Lymphoma Study Group (GLSG). Leukemia 23 (1): 153-61, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
  63. Ghobrial IM, Hong F, Padmanabhan S, et al.: Phase II trial of weekly bortezomib in combination with rituximab in relapsed or relapsed and refractory Waldenstrom macroglobulinemia. J Clin Oncol 28 (8): 1422-8, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
  64. Rummel MJ, Niederle N, Maschmeyer G, et al.: Bendamustine plus rituximab versus CHOP plus rituximab as first-line treatment for patients with indolent and mantle-cell lymphomas: an open-label, multicentre, randomised, phase 3 non-inferiority trial. Lancet 381 (9873): 1203-10, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
  65. Castillo JJ, Itchaki G, Paludo J, et al.: Ibrutinib for the treatment of Bing-Neel syndrome: a multicenter study. Blood 133 (4): 299-305, 2019. [PUBMED Abstract]
  66. Dreger P, Glass B, Kuse R, et al.: Myeloablative radiochemotherapy followed by reinfusion of purged autologous stem cells for Waldenström's macroglobulinaemia. Br J Haematol 106 (1): 115-8, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
  67. Desikan R, Dhodapkar M, Siegel D, et al.: High-dose therapy with autologous haemopoietic stem cell support for Waldenström's macroglobulinaemia. Br J Haematol 105 (4): 993-6, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
  68. Martin P, Chadburn A, Christos P, et al.: Intensive treatment strategies may not provide superior outcomes in mantle cell lymphoma: overall survival exceeding 7 years with standard therapies. Ann Oncol 19 (7): 1327-30, 2008. [PUBMED Abstract]
  69. Kyriakou C, Canals C, Cornelissen JJ, et al.: Allogeneic stem-cell transplantation in patients with Waldenström macroglobulinemia: report from the Lymphoma Working Party of the European Group for Blood and Marrow Transplantation. J Clin Oncol 28 (33): 4926-34, 2010. [PUBMED Abstract]
  70. Leleu X, Soumerai J, Roccaro A, et al.: Increased incidence of transformation and myelodysplasia/acute leukemia in patients with Waldenström macroglobulinemia treated with nucleoside analogs. J Clin Oncol 27 (2): 250-5, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
  71. Leblond V, Lévy V, Maloisel F, et al.: Multicenter, randomized comparative trial of fludarabine and the combination of cyclophosphamide-doxorubicin-prednisone in 92 patients with Waldenström macroglobulinemia in first relapse or with primary refractory disease. Blood 98 (9): 2640-4, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
  72. Bertoni F, Zucca E: State-of-the-art therapeutics: marginal-zone lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 23 (26): 6415-20, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
  73. Zucca E, Bertoni F: The spectrum of MALT lymphoma at different sites: biological and therapeutic relevance. Blood 127 (17): 2082-92, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
  74. Thieblemont C, Cascione L, Conconi A, et al.: A MALT lymphoma prognostic index. Blood 130 (12): 1409-1417, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
  75. Alderuccio JP, Zhao W, Desai A, et al.: Risk Factors for Transformation to Higher-Grade Lymphoma and Its Impact on Survival in a Large Cohort of Patients With Marginal Zone Lymphoma From a Single Institution. J Clin Oncol : JCO1800138, 2018. [PUBMED Abstract]
  76. Zullo A, Hassan C, Andriani A, et al.: Eradication therapy for Helicobacter pylori in patients with gastric MALT lymphoma: a pooled data analysis. Am J Gastroenterol 104 (8): 1932-7; quiz 1938, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
  77. Nakamura S, Sugiyama T, Matsumoto T, et al.: Long-term clinical outcome of gastric MALT lymphoma after eradication of Helicobacter pylori: a multicentre cohort follow-up study of 420 patients in Japan. Gut 61 (4): 507-13, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
  78. Wündisch T, Thiede C, Morgner A, et al.: Long-term follow-up of gastric MALT lymphoma after Helicobacter pylori eradication. J Clin Oncol 23 (31): 8018-24, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
  79. Ye H, Liu H, Raderer M, et al.: High incidence of t(11;18)(q21;q21) in Helicobacter pylori-negative gastric MALT lymphoma. Blood 101 (7): 2547-50, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
  80. Lévy M, Copie-Bergman C, Gameiro C, et al.: Prognostic value of translocation t(11;18) in tumoral response of low-grade gastric lymphoma of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue type to oral chemotherapy. J Clin Oncol 23 (22): 5061-6, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
  81. Nakamura S, Ye H, Bacon CM, et al.: Clinical impact of genetic aberrations in gastric MALT lymphoma: a comprehensive analysis using interphase fluorescence in situ hybridisation. Gut 56 (10): 1358-63, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
  82. Schechter NR, Yahalom J: Low-grade MALT lymphoma of the stomach: a review of treatment options. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 46 (5): 1093-103, 2000. [PUBMED Abstract]
  83. Tsang RW, Gospodarowicz MK, Pintilie M, et al.: Stage I and II MALT lymphoma: results of treatment with radiotherapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 50 (5): 1258-64, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
  84. Tsang RW, Gospodarowicz MK, Pintilie M, et al.: Localized mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma treated with radiation therapy has excellent clinical outcome. J Clin Oncol 21 (22): 4157-64, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
  85. Tsai HK, Li S, Ng AK, et al.: Role of radiation therapy in the treatment of stage I/II mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma. Ann Oncol 18 (4): 672-8, 2007. [PUBMED Abstract]
  86. Martinelli G, Laszlo D, Ferreri AJ, et al.: Clinical activity of rituximab in gastric marginal zone non-Hodgkin's lymphoma resistant to or not eligible for anti-Helicobacter pylori therapy. J Clin Oncol 23 (9): 1979-83, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
  87. Cogliatti SB, Schmid U, Schumacher U, et al.: Primary B-cell gastric lymphoma: a clinicopathological study of 145 patients. Gastroenterology 101 (5): 1159-70, 1991. [PUBMED Abstract]
  88. Zinzani PL, Magagnoli M, Galieni P, et al.: Nongastrointestinal low-grade mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma: analysis of 75 patients. J Clin Oncol 17 (4): 1254, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
  89. Thieblemont C, Bastion Y, Berger F, et al.: Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue gastrointestinal and nongastrointestinal lymphoma behavior: analysis of 108 patients. J Clin Oncol 15 (4): 1624-30, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
  90. Pavlick AC, Gerdes H, Portlock CS: Endoscopic ultrasound in the evaluation of gastric small lymphocytic mucosa-associated lymphoid tumors. J Clin Oncol 15 (5): 1761-6, 1997. [PUBMED Abstract]
  91. Morgner A, Miehlke S, Fischbach W, et al.: Complete remission of primary high-grade B-cell gastric lymphoma after cure of Helicobacter pylori infection. J Clin Oncol 19 (7): 2041-8, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
  92. Chen LT, Lin JT, Shyu RY, et al.: Prospective study of Helicobacter pylori eradication therapy in stage I(E) high-grade mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma of the stomach. J Clin Oncol 19 (22): 4245-51, 2001. [PUBMED Abstract]
  93. Chen LT, Lin JT, Tai JJ, et al.: Long-term results of anti-Helicobacter pylori therapy in early-stage gastric high-grade transformed MALT lymphoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 97 (18): 1345-53, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
  94. Kuo SH, Yeh KH, Wu MS, et al.: Helicobacter pylori eradication therapy is effective in the treatment of early-stage H pylori-positive gastric diffuse large B-cell lymphomas. Blood 119 (21): 4838-44; quiz 5057, 2012. [PUBMED Abstract]
  95. Uno T, Isobe K, Shikama N, et al.: Radiotherapy for extranodal, marginal zone, B-cell lymphoma of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue originating in the ocular adnexa: a multiinstitutional, retrospective review of 50 patients. Cancer 98 (4): 865-71, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
  96. Bayraktar S, Bayraktar UD, Stefanovic A, et al.: Primary ocular adnexal mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma (MALT): single institution experience in a large cohort of patients. Br J Haematol 152 (1): 72-80, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
  97. Stefanovic A, Lossos IS: Extranodal marginal zone lymphoma of the ocular adnexa. Blood 114 (3): 501-10, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
  98. Vazquez A, Khan MN, Sanghvi S, et al.: Extranodal marginal zone lymphoma of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue of the salivary glands: a population-based study from 1994 to 2009. Head Neck 37 (1): 18-22, 2015. [PUBMED Abstract]
  99. Raderer M, Streubel B, Woehrer S, et al.: High relapse rate in patients with MALT lymphoma warrants lifelong follow-up. Clin Cancer Res 11 (9): 3349-52, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
  100. Sretenovic M, Colovic M, Jankovic G, et al.: More than a third of non-gastric malt lymphomas are disseminated at diagnosis: a single center survey. Eur J Haematol 82 (5): 373-80, 2009. [PUBMED Abstract]
  101. Nathwani BN, Drachenberg MR, Hernandez AM, et al.: Nodal monocytoid B-cell lymphoma (nodal marginal-zone B-cell lymphoma). Semin Hematol 36 (2): 128-38, 1999. [PUBMED Abstract]
  102. Raderer M, Wöhrer S, Streubel B, et al.: Assessment of disease dissemination in gastric compared with extragastric mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma using extensive staging: a single-center experience. J Clin Oncol 24 (19): 3136-41, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
  103. Zucca E, Conconi A, Martinelli G, et al.: Final Results of the IELSG-19 Randomized Trial of Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue Lymphoma: Improved Event-Free and Progression-Free Survival With Rituximab Plus Chlorambucil Versus Either Chlorambucil or Rituximab Monotherapy. J Clin Oncol 35 (17): 1905-1912, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
  104. Kiesewetter B, Raderer M: Antibiotic therapy in nongastrointestinal MALT lymphoma: a review of the literature. Blood 122 (8): 1350-7, 2013. [PUBMED Abstract]
  105. Grünberger B, Hauff W, Lukas J, et al.: 'Blind' antibiotic treatment targeting Chlamydia is not effective in patients with MALT lymphoma of the ocular adnexa. Ann Oncol 17 (3): 484-7, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
  106. Kuo SH, Chen LT, Yeh KH, et al.: Nuclear expression of BCL10 or nuclear factor kappa B predicts Helicobacter pylori-independent status of early-stage, high-grade gastric mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphomas. J Clin Oncol 22 (17): 3491-7, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
  107. Desai A, Joag MG, Lekakis L, et al.: Long-term course of patients with primary ocular adnexal MALT lymphoma: a large single-institution cohort study. Blood 129 (3): 324-332, 2017. [PUBMED Abstract]
  108. Thieblemont C, Molina T, Davi F: Optimizing therapy for nodal marginal zone lymphoma. Blood 127 (17): 2064-71, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
  109. Vallisa D, Bernuzzi P, Arcaini L, et al.: Role of anti-hepatitis C virus (HCV) treatment in HCV-related, low-grade, B-cell, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: a multicenter Italian experience. J Clin Oncol 23 (3): 468-73, 2005. [PUBMED Abstract]
  110. Isaacson PG: Gastrointestinal lymphoma. Hum Pathol 25 (10): 1020-9, 1994. [PUBMED Abstract]
  111. Lecuit M, Abachin E, Martin A, et al.: Immunoproliferative small intestinal disease associated with Campylobacter jejuni. N Engl J Med 350 (3): 239-48, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
  112. Arcaini L, Paulli M, Boveri E, et al.: Splenic and nodal marginal zone lymphomas are indolent disorders at high hepatitis C virus seroprevalence with distinct presenting features but similar morphologic and phenotypic profiles. Cancer 100 (1): 107-15, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
  113. Arcaini L, Rossi D, Paulli M: Splenic marginal zone lymphoma: from genetics to management. Blood 127 (17): 2072-81, 2016. [PUBMED Abstract]
  114. Parry-Jones N, Matutes E, Gruszka-Westwood AM, et al.: Prognostic features of splenic lymphoma with villous lymphocytes: a report on 129 patients. Br J Haematol 120 (5): 759-64, 2003. [PUBMED Abstract]
  115. Arcaini L, Lazzarino M, Colombo N, et al.: Splenic marginal zone lymphoma: a prognostic model for clinical use. Blood 107 (12): 4643-9, 2006. [PUBMED Abstract]
  116. Iannitto E, Ambrosetti A, Ammatuna E, et al.: Splenic marginal zone lymphoma with or without villous lymphocytes. Hematologic findings and outcomes in a series of 57 patients. Cancer 101 (9): 2050-7, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
  117. Hermine O, Lefrère F, Bronowicki JP, et al.: Regression of splenic lymphoma with villous lymphocytes after treatment of hepatitis C virus infection. N Engl J Med 347 (2): 89-94, 2002. [PUBMED Abstract]
  118. Kelaidi C, Rollot F, Park S, et al.: Response to antiviral treatment in hepatitis C virus-associated marginal zone lymphomas. Leukemia 18 (10): 1711-6, 2004. [PUBMED Abstract]
  119. de Bruin PC, Beljaards RC, van Heerde P, et al.: Differences in clinical behaviour and immunophenotype between primary cutaneous and primary nodal anaplastic large cell lymphoma of T-cell or null cell phenotype. Histopathology 23 (2): 127-35, 1993. [PUBMED Abstract]
  120. Willemze R, Beljaards RC: Spectrum of primary cutaneous CD30 (Ki-1)-positive lymphoproliferative disorders. A proposal for classification and guidelines for management and treatment. J Am Acad Dermatol 28 (6): 973-80, 1993. [PUBMED Abstract]
  121. Kempf W, Pfaltz K, Vermeer MH, et al.: EORTC, ISCL, and USCLC consensus recommendations for the treatment of primary cutaneous CD30-positive lymphoproliferative disorders: lymphomatoid papulosis and primary cutaneous anaplastic large-cell lymphoma. Blood 118 (15): 4024-35, 2011. [PUBMED Abstract]
Publicado por en

No hay comentarios:

Publicar un comentario

Suscribirse a: Enviar comentarios (Atom)